Ashutosh Dixit, Author at Words and Swords

Posted on July 13, 2020April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 5 Comments

Why and How is Alexander ‘the Great’- Part 2

Alexander the Great and Porus at Hydaspes, painting by Le Brun

In Part 1, we covered the early years of Alexander the Great, as well as his conquest of Asia Minor, Egypt and Persia. In this part, we attempt to complete the story, as well as take a critical look at the life of one of the greatest figures in history.

The Hetairoi and the Somatophylakes

Along with the phalanx formation, one of the greatest strengths of the Macedonian army was the Companion cavalry, called the Hetairoi. This was probably the first use of shock cavalry troops in the world. Originally conceived by Philippos, it was perfected by his son. In Alexander’s time, the Companion Cavalry comprised 2000-3000 of the best horsemen. These riders formed the ‘hammer’, charging into the enemy forces like a wedge. The enemy army, on the other hand, would be locked in place by the ‘anvil’ of the Phalanx Infantry. Unable to move, it would be destroyed by the Companions. Many of Alexander’s victories were achieved thus!

But to lead such a specialized attack, requires leaders of the highest caliber. These Alexander had in the form of the Somatophylakes, his Elite Guard, 7-8 hand-picked warriors that also led the Companion cavalry. These generals, including the likes of Ptolemy, Demetrius, Perdiccas and Alexander’s dearest friend Hephaestion, did not have any organizational structure, but were rather given certain duties as per their proven abilities. This system resulted in the benefit that, in order to prove their worth and get the most important duties, these generals would achieve great deeds and stature. However, it also proved a weakness after Alexander’s death, as they had no structure to fall back on and began vying with one another for power.

Alexander in Persepolis

Alexander entered Persepolis (Parsa), the capital of Persia, after his victory at Gaugamela. There, his armies looted the treasuries for five days while he himself stayed at the Emperor’s palace. During a drunken revelry by his soldiers, a fire broke out and spread into the city which they later put out.

The historian Plutarch mentions an anecdote where Alexander came across the fallen statue of the former Emperor Xerxes I, who had invaded Greece and destroyed Athens. Alexander said to the statue, “Shall I pass by and leave you lying there for your expeditions against Greece? Or shall I reinstate you for your virtues and magnanimity as a ruler?” Yet he also visited the tomb of the Persian Emperor Cyrus the Great, renowned for his conquests, wisdom and benevolence throughout the ancient world. As a mark of respect, he ordered his architect to decorate the tomb.

*Alexander at the Tomb of Cyrus the Great, by Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes (1796)*

The present Persian Emperor Darius III had fled towards Central Asia under protection of his vassal Bessus. Alexander set out in pursuit. Upon hearing news of his approach, Bessus treacherously killed Darius, declared himself the emperor, and retreated to the mountains.

Conquest of Central Asia

Alexander gave Darius III a regal funeral next to his ancestors, and declared himself Shahenshah of Persia. Viewing Bessus as a usurper, he began his conquest of Central Asia.

Alexander campaigned through Media, Parthia, Aria, Arachosia, Bactria and Scythia. Fearing his wrath, Spitamenes, one of Bessus’ generals, betrayed and handed him over to Alexander’s general Ptolemy. However, after Alexander executed Bessus and went on to fight the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes, Spitamenes revolted against him. Angered, Alexander launched a campaign and defeated him in the Battle of Gabai. Spitamenes’ own men then killed him and surrendered to the Greeks. Thus, Alexander conquered most of Central Asia.

At a ceremony of accepting allegiance from all the local warlords who had surrendered, he espied Roxana, daughter of one of Spitamenes’ noblemen and fell in love with her. Against the wishes of his countrymen, he wed her in 327 BCE at a grand ceremony, thus cementing his rule over Central Asia.

The wedding of Alexander and Roxane, by Andre Castaigne

Trouble in the Camps

It was around this time that signs of strife became apparent within Alexander’s camps. His armies, hitherto comprised mainly of Macedonian and Greek soldiers, had now swelled to include Persians and Central Asians who had vastly different religions and customs. This spelled trouble.

The Persians insisted on following their ancient custom of proskynesis- prostrating themselves on the ground- as a sign of respect towards their Emperor. Alexander allowed this; however, the Greeks were offended because in their culture it was only proper to prostrate before the gods. They began to believe that Alexander now viewed himself as a god. His approval of Persian customs, as well as increasing indulgence in drinking made it seem like he was corrupted and weakened by the Persian influence.

The Killing of Cleitus

There were several plots against his life, and Alexander had all the suspects brutally executed. But the most infamous incident occurred in Samarkand when Cleitus, a veteran general from the times of King Philippos, accused him of favoring the Persians.

What began as a drunken altercation between friends soon erupted into a violent quarrel. Cleitus, who had once saved Alexander’s life at the Battle of Granicus, opposed his allowing proskynesis and employing Persian eunuchs. He stated that Alexander owed much of his success to his father Philippos. Angry and bitter, a drunken Alexander ordered his men to strike Cleitus. Instead, they sensibly tried to remove him from the court; but Cleitus refused to leave and continued arguing. Alexander furiously seized a spear and drove it into his heart.

*Alexander slaying Cleitus by Daniel de Blieck; (c) Ferens Art Gallery; Supplied by The Public Catalogue Foundation*

When he came to his senses later, Alexander was so remorseful that he refused to eat food for many days out of shame and guilt. But the black deed was done; the man who had saved his life had died at his hand. This would haunt Alexander till his dying day.

Campaign in the Indian Subcontinent

After his marriage, he began his campaign in the Indian Subcontinent. He invited the rulers of the Gandhara region (present-day border of Afghanistan and Pakistan) to swear fealty to him. King Ambhi of Takshashila submitted as a vassal; however, the Kamboja hill tribes refused. Ambhi, eager to please, helped the Companions Hephaestion and Perdiccas construct a bridge for their armies. Alexander personally led them and defeated the hill-tribes after a hard-fought battle. Ambhi received him with great splendor at his capital, and promised to support his conquest. In return, Alexander allowed him to keep all his lands and gave him valuable gifts. The stage was set for Alexander to enter the Punjab.

An apocryphal story states that the philosopher Chanakya, accompanied by his young pupil Chandragupta Maurya witnessed Alexander at Takshashila. Their appreciation of Alexander’s power, as well as the threat posed by conquerors like him, strengthened their plans to create a powerful empire.

King Puru (called Porus by the Greeks) of the Paurava dynasty, who ruled the land between the Jhelum and Beas rivers, had a longstanding rivalry with Ambhi. As news reached Puru of the Greeks crossing the Khyber Pass and defeating the Hindu Kush mountain tribes, he prepared for war.

Crossing of the Jhelum

Alexander, accompanied by Ambhi, marched into Punjab with 40,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry. He fixed his camps on the right-hand of the Jhelum River. On the opposite side to the south was Puru with his 30,000 infantry, 4000 cavalry, 1000 chariots and 130 elephants. However, the river was in full force, and anyone trying to cross it would be at a disadvantage. What would happen now?

Alexander rode along the length of the river, trying to find a suitable place where he could cross. Once he had found it, he began his preparations. He ordered his general Craterus to keep pretending to charge, frequently feinting attacks before falling back. Simultaneously, he used a lookalike to pretend as if Alexander was holding court at the camp. Wearied by these tactics, Puru relaxed in his vigilance. Taking advantage, Alexander quietly moved some of his forces upstream to the crossing.

One day, he suddenly led more than 10000 men across the raging river. Perceiving his move, Puru sent his son with his best chariot troops to face the Greeks. But as luck would have it, the earlier days had seen fierce rains and their wheels frequently got stuck in the mud. The young prince and his charioteers fell to the Greek arrows; Alexander advanced.

Battle of the Hydaspes (Jhelum)

By this time, Puru had prepared for battle. He placed cavalry on both flanks and chariots at the front, while the elephants stood in front of the infantry. Alexander’s horse archers engaged the right wing, while he led his famed Companion Cavalry to attack the left. Puru’s right wing soon became overwhelmed, and required reinforcements. The elephants caused a great havoc among the Phalanx Infantry, which had never faced anything like it. They began desperately throwing javelins at the mahouts driving the elephants. The war became the most difficult one ever fought by Alexander. Ultimately, he managed to smash through the center with his classic ‘hammer and anvil’ strategy, and the Indians were routed.

Even then, Puru continued to fight valiantly, until Craterus arrived with reinforcements from the other shore and captured him. Impressed with his courage, Alexander asked Puru how he wished to be treated. Puru famously answered, ‘Treat me as a king would treat another king!” Alexander set him free, returned all his lands and gave him additional territories to rule. He named Puru a personal friend and his plenipotentiary satrap in India.

Death of a Conqueror

After Punjab, Alexander planned to challenge the Magadha Empire (Bihar) and the Gangaridai (Bengal). However, his spies reported of Magadha being far more powerful than Puru’s army. His soldiers, already tired from a decade of constant warfare, longed for home. They refused to go any further.

Alexander decided to turn back. Returning to Susa (Babylon) in 324 BCE, he married Stateira II, daughter of Darius III, and her cousin Parysatis. He was now officially a member of the Persian royal family. His vast empire stretched from Egypt, Greece, and Turkey, through Mesopotamia, Persia and Central Asia up to north-western India. He took the title Lord of Asia, and began planning extensive campaigns in Arabia. However, the death of his dearest friend Hephaestion left him grieving.

The Macedonian Empire — *The Empire of Alexander the Great*

In June 323 BCE, Alexander contracted high fever, and was ill for days. All remedies failed, and he passed away at the age of 32. Though many suspected poison, there is little proof to support it. Most historians attribute his death to typhoid-like fever, worsened by his poor health due to heavy drinking and years of battle wounds.

Aftermath

Alexander’s unexpected death shook the ancient world. Without his clear vision, his commanders and family turned on each other. His wife Roxana was pregnant when he died, and soon gave birth to a son, Alexander IV. She had his other wives killed to avoid competition, and with the help of his generals set up her infant son as Emperor. However, they soon betrayed her and claimed power for themselves. The empire plunged into war for 40 years before settling into 4 stable kingdoms: Egypt under Ptolemy, Macedon under Antigonus, Anatolia under Attalus, and Central Asia and Mesopotamia under Seleucus.

Legacy

Alexander had many flaws, such as a fiery temper and indulgent drinking habits. His failure to name an heir and plan his succession led his mighty empire to dissolution.

However, Alexander fought 20 major battles over 12 years and won them all, creating a vast empire of 5.2 million sq. km! His brilliant strategies, personal leadership, diplomatic tact, and respect for different faiths and cultures cemented his status as one of the most admired men in history. His campaigns extended Greek culture and influence into Asia and Africa. Large parts of these territories were under Greeks for centuries after him, leading to the ‘Hellenistic period’ of history. Trade, prosperity and cultural exchange increased across 3 continents, and the legend of invincible Alexander became forever etched upon the pages of history.

‘The Great’ seems a well-earned title, after all!

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on June 27, 2020April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 5 Comments

Why and How is Alexander ‘the Great’- Part 1

Alexander the Great founding Alexandria, Egypt; painting by Placido Costanzi

Alexander the Great is probably one of the most famous names in history, synonymous with courage and victory. Julius Caesar, the famed Roman general, once expressed sorrow over the fact that he would never be able to outdo Alexander’s achievements. His heir, the first Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar, took time after conquering Egypt to visit Alexander’s tomb in Alexandria. Even Napoleon considered him to be the greatest conqueror of all times. But this admiration is not just limited to the great conquerors; Alexander has created an enduring fascination in the minds of people worldwide.

*Statue of Alexander the Great of Macedon*

And yet, there are those today who question the appellation of ‘the Great’ attached to him. Was he truly worthy enough of the title? Or is his legend just a story blown out of proportion? In this article, we take a look at the life and times of Alexander III of Macedon, and what makes him ‘the Great’.

The Beginning

Born in Pella, capital of the Kingdom of Macedon, Alexander III was the eldest son and heir of the great King Philippos II with his wife Olympias.

Before Phillippos’ time, Athens, Thebes and Sparta had dominated the small kingdom of Macedon. Philippos defeated the Athenian invaders and diplomatically dealt with the powerful Thebans. He then introduced the ‘Macedonian Phalanx’ infantry formation in his army, where the units created tight formations of 8X16 men wielding long spears and pikes. This unbreakable formation became the root of Macedonian military success and Philippos succeeded in defeating several Greek city-states, forcing Athens to sue for peace. He was a man of great ambition, but even he had realized by this time that his son was something different.

Alexander’s mother believed that he was special, often telling him that he had been born from Zeus, the King of the Greek Gods. Believing his mother’s tales he had grown up to be a strong, handsome and charismatic youth. When he was ten, a trader had brought a wild black horse to his father, and claimed it was untamable. Where all the other soldiers and nobles had failed, Alexander had succeeded in calming it. Seeing this, Philippos remarked that Macedon was too small for his son’s ambitions, and began training him in military strategy, martial skill and leadership at a young age.

*Queen Olympias presents young Alexander to Aristotle, painting by Gerard Hoet*

But he had another teacher. From the age of 14 to 16, he was taught science, math, philosophy, art, literature and statesmanship by none other than Aristotle, one of the greatest philosopher-scientists of the ancient world. Aristotle’s teachings had a great impact on the ever-curious Alexander, imparting to him an admiration of different cultures and a thirst to explore the world.

Early Successes

Upon graduation, he began governing Macedon when his father was away. He successfully defeated two rebellions, defended against an invasion and even fought battles alongside his father, earning the praise of his people. Philippos had by then established the League of Corinth or Hellenic League, a confederacy of all Greek city-states (except Sparta) with himself as the Supreme Leader (Hegemon). With the resources of almost all of ancient Greece, he planned on challenging the might of the Persian Empire that had repeatedly invaded Greece in the past. However, before he could begin, one of his guards assassinated him over petty strife. And so at the age of 20, Alexander suddenly found himself King of Macedon and Hegemon of Greece.

The news of his powerful father’s death encouraged a few of the stronger city-states to revolt. Alexander promptly responded by taking 3000 of his toughest cavalry and riding across Greece. He defeated the Thessalian army by riding over a mountain and attacking them from behind. Soon, the city-states started surrendering and making peace, and duly recognized him as the next Hegemon of the Hellenic League. Taking advantage of his riding south, the northern Thracians and Illyrians revolted. He rode north to defeat them, only to find Thebes, which had just made peace with him, revolting again. Furious, he attacked Thebes and razed the entire city to the ground. The destruction of Thebes was thus a lesson and a reminder to the rest of Greece: Alexander was not to be challenged.

Thus, establishing supreme authority in all of Greece, he turned his attention to Persia.

Conquest of Asia Minor

The Persian Empire at the time stretched from Turkey right up to modern day Afghanistan. In 334 BCE, Alexander led his armies across the Hellespont Strait, the traditional boundary between Europe and Asia. Throwing a spear into the ground, he declared that Asia was a gift to him from the Gods.

Battle of Granicus

At Granicus in modern-day Turkey, near the ruins of Troy, Alexander engaged with a Persian force of 20,000 cavalry and 20,000 infantry. With his forces roughly equal, his superior phalanx formation won the day, and the local Persian satrap (tributary) surrendered. He then rode along the coast, besieging and taking the ports of Miletus, Halicarnassus, Lycia and Pamphylia. Thus by capturing the coast, he ensured that no Persian reinforcements could arrive from the sea!

Battle of Issus

Alarmed by Alexander’s rapid progress, the Persian Emperor, Darius III himself led an army to stop him. Alexander at this time had around 40,000 men, while Darius III more than 80,000 which he positioned on a great plain where he could mass them all effectively.

*Alexander the Great (left) fights Darius III at Issus*; *Mosaic in Naples*

Alexander refused to engage this superior force, which Darius took as a sign of cowardice. Incited by his courtiers, he left his position and charged at Alexander, who retreated. He successfully struck the rear of Alexander’s force and seemed to be winning when, suddenly, they reached a narrow pass. Here, the Greeks turned to give battle. The huge armies of Persia were useless in the narrow pass, which was just as Alexander had planned. The experienced Macedonians destroyed Darius’s left wing. The centre held for a while, and the fighting grew desperate. At this stage, Alexander’s nerves of steel saved the day, as he personally led a furious charge at Darius and his bodyguards. Frightened, Darius III fled along with his army, leaving behind his mother, wife and children.

Here, Alexander showed his diplomatic charm, honoring them and treating them as royalty. Darius offered him a ransom and one of his daughters in marriage, along with the territories he had already captured. Alexander retorted that in the future, Darius should address him as a superior and not as an equal. He took Syria, as well as the Levant which included modern-day Jordan, Israel, Palestine and parts of Turkey.

Siege of Tyre

In 332 BCE, Alexander sent envoys to Tyre, an ancient Phoenician island stronghold. The islanders declared that no Greeks or Persians could enter their home. When he sent more messengers, they were beheaded and thrown from the walls. Enraged, Alexander decided to teach the islanders a lesson. He commanded his engineers to build a great stone causeway of more than 1 km to connect the island to the mainland. The bridge was built, over which he led his forces and besieged the city.

For seven months, Alexander’s forces tried to storm the island but failed. Then he decided to utilize his new navy, which had come under his control from the Persians. With 223 ships, he successfully blocked both ports on the island, and had several ships refitted with battering rams anchored near the walls. The Tyrians sent out ships and divers to cut the anchor cables, so he responded by replacing the cables with iron chains. Eventually, his rams managed to breach the city walls.

He pardoned the citizens that took shelter in the local temple, including the King of Tyre. However, more than 8,000 Tyrian men were killed in the attack, while some 30,000 people were sold into slavery. The causeway that Alexander built exists to this day, connecting Tyre to the continent.

Conquest of Egypt

From there, Alexander marched towards the ancient civilization of Egypt. Many of the smaller towns on the way quickly surrendered, but Gaza resisted. Alexander had to launch 3 attacks and suffer a shoulder wound before it eventually fell. As at Tyre, he killed many soldiers and sold many citizens into slavery.

In late 332 BCE, Alexander reached Egypt. The Egyptians, long under foreign rule, considered him a liberator and welcomed him. At the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan Desert, he was pronounced the son of Ammon-Ra, the King of the Egyptian Gods, and named Pharaoh of Egypt. Thereafter, Alexander often referred to himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon, a manifestation of the King of Gods of both Greek and Egyptian religions. While in Egypt, he began the construction of the city of Alexandria, which would become a major cultural, educational and trade center for the world for centuries to come.

Conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia

Returning from the African continent, he invaded the ancient lands of Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), which contained the major remaining part of the Persian Empire. Fearing further battles, the Emperor Darius tried to negotiate terms with him, going so far as to make him co-ruler of the Persian Empire. However, the young King gave a chilling reply: there could be only one Emperor. Darius mustered his forces of almost a 100,000 men and marched upon Alexander’s 47,000.

Battle of Gaugamela

This time, Darius ensured that he had a flat plain area of land to use his full force. Alexander charged the centre of the Persian forces with his best-trained phalanx infantry. Simultaneously, he himself led a furious cavalry charge with his most trusted Generals at the right flank. As he’d hoped, Darius’ forces started pursuing him, leaving a gap wide open in between the right and the centre. This move required insanely perfect timing, and has been repeated only a few times since then.

As the fighting grew ever more intense, Alexander gathered a strong force of infantry and cavalry around him, and smashed through the exposed gap in the Persian centre, killing the royal guard. Darius III fled the battle, and Alexander turned back to help his Generals secure a victory.

Aftermath

Darius rode to the eastern parts of the Persian Empire, depending on his vassals to protect him; but his Bactrian satrap Bessus treacherously killed him and fled. Alexander was sorrowful, as he had considered Darius a worthy foe and a good man. He entered the ancient Persian capital of Persepolis and buried Darius next to his ancestors.

Thus, in 330 BCE, Alexander III officially became King of Macedon, Hegemon of Greece, Pharaoh of Egypt and Shahenshah of Persia. His Empire now stretched over 3 continents.

He was only 26 years old.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on June 26, 2020April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit

The Maratha War of Independence, Part 2- Chhatrapati Rajaram, Maharani Tarabai, and Aftermath

Sinhagad Fort; Image Source: Lobodrl / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)

The Maratha War of Independence was fought from 1681 CE to 1707 CE between the mighty Mughal Empire under Aurangzeb and the newly-independent Maratha state. For 27 long years, this David-and-Goliath war occupied western India, until just like the Biblical tale, the smaller side emerged victorious. Part 1 covered the first 9 years where the Marathas led by Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, resisted Mughal invasion. In 1689, the Mughals captured Sambhaji Maharaj captured through treachery and brutally executed him. The Maratha capital Raigad was also betrayed, and his wife and son imprisoned in Aurangzeb’s camp. The old Emperor was about to declare the war won, when he heard that Rajaram, half-brother of Sambhaji, had escaped to the fort of Vishalgad and been crowned the next Chhatrapati.

The War of Independence, it seemed, was to continue.

A Plan of Vengeance

At Vishalgad, the Maratha leadership knew they had to act fast against the Mughals. The purpose was both, to avenge their fallen king as well as to weaken the Mughals’ spirit. And so in a daring move, the new Army Commander or Senapati, Santaji Ghorpade, with three other captains and a handful of men, launched a night raid upon the Mughal camp. Slaughtering the drowsy guards, they created havoc in the camp.

Santaji went straight to the largest tent- the Emperor’s shamiana. But Aurangzeb was visiting his daughter that night, and so safe from Santaji’s wrath! Upon not finding his target, Santaji cut off the imperial golden spire at the top of the tent and made his way back to Vishalgad with a lot of loot. This incident struck terror in the hearts of the Mughals. Aurangzeb also realized how close he had come to death, and ordered his forces to Vishalgad!

The Mughal forces began systematically occupying the surrounding area, and luring the local Maratha noblemen into their service. Their power and cruelty was reaching its zenith, and the situation was dire.

The Escape to Jinjee

*Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj, 3rd Maratha Emperor*

Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj was worried. His sister-in-law had asked him to take charge of the Maratha Empire, but now she and the rightful heir to the throne, his nephew Shivaji II were prisoners. And he could do nothing to save them! He had assumed the position of the Chhatrapati only to defend the Swarajya in the name of his nephew, but his position was becoming untenable. The Mughals were swarming their territories, destroying temples and looting the populace. He took counsel with the Pradhan Mandal, his Council of Ministers. And then inspiration struck! Jinjee!

In his unparalleled foresight, the illustrious Shivaji Maharaj, father of Rajaram had campaigned far into South India, forging alliances with key rulers and conquering territories like Vellore and Jinjee in Tamil Nadu. Close to these was the Maratha Kingdom of Thanjavur, ruled by Rajaram’s cousin. These southern territories formed a second line of defense now that the strongholds of Maharashtra were threatened. And so a bold plan was hatched.

The Prime Minister or Peshwa, Nilo Pant Moreshwar, was sent ahead to secure the territory of Jinjee for the Chhatrapati. Rajaram Maharaj, accompanied by his trusted Viceroy or ‘Pratinidhi’ Pralhad Pant, his Royal Scribe or ‘Chitnis’ Khando Ballal, and some chosen soldiers escaped Vishalgad and traveled south. The Emperor of course, sent an army in pursuit, but Santaji Ghorpade and his deputy Dhanaji Jadhav harassed and dispersed this army through guerrilla attacks. Queen Keladi Chennamma of the Nayaks of Karnataka also resisted the Mughals fiercely and protected the Chhatrapati. He reached Jinjee in 1691.

Painting of Hukumatpanah Ramchandra Pant Amatya; Image Credit: By Vedika201 - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=81916411 — *Painting of Hukumatpanah Ramchandra Pant Amatya; Image Credit*

Santaji and Dhanaji, the two fearless generals then returned to meet the remaining members of the Pradhan Mandal now directing the freedom struggle in Maharashtra- Ramchandra Pant ‘Amatya’, the Finance Minister, and Shankaraji Pant ‘Sacheev’, the Royal Secretary. Ramchandra Pant Amatya was at this point, the only surviving member of Shivaji’s original Council of Ministers. And so before leaving, the Chhatrapati had bestowed the title of ‘Hukumatpanah’ upon this veteran, effectively authorizing him to rule in his stead. Along with the Sacheev and the two generals, as well as the Pant Pratinidhi and the Chitnis at Jinjee, he would lead the peoples’ guerrilla war against the Mughals.

Shivaji II becomes ‘Shahu’ in the Mughal Camps

Meanwhile, the Mughals held prisoner young Shivaji II, son of Chhatrapati Sambhaji, his mother Yesubai and 200 other members and servants of the royal household. The prisoners lived in fear for their lives, but Aurangzeb had learned his lesson. He had cruelly executed Sambhaji Maharaj and still the Marathas had continued their resistance. Deciding to play the long game, he treated Yesubai and Shivaji II comparatively mildly.

He particularly tried to influence the Maratha prince, but his name kept reminding Aurangzeb of his hated foe, the boy’s grandfather ‘Shivaji’! And so he gave the boy a new name- Shahu. Shahu grew to be an intelligent, wise and perceptive young man. Though never allowed to learn the martial skills of warfare, he became a man of great learning and culture.

A Clash of Strategies

Aurangzeb sent a large force south with his trusted General Zulfiqar Khan and his son Kam Baksh. But the citadel of Jinjee proved a match for the Mughal cannons, while the Marathas raided Mughal camps regularly with aid from the Maratha King of Thanjavur. The siege of Jinjee thus continued for 7 years!

Jinjee Fort, Capital of the Marathas under Rajaram Maharaj; Image Source: KARTY JazZ / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0) — *Jinjee Fort, Capital of the Marathas under Rajaram Maharaj; Image Source*

Meanwhile, the commanders Santaji and Dhanaji carried out a series of devastating cavalry attacks in various regions like Malwa, Karnataka and Telangana. They won some skirmishes and lost a few, but the objective was to keep the Mughal forces occupied and scattered. Other sardars such as Vithoji Chavan, the Bhonsles, and the Pawars, coordinating with the Amatya and the Sacheev, fought the Mughals all over Maharashtra. At this point, Chhatrapati Rajaram and his Council reinstated the ‘watandari’ system abolished by Shivaji Maharaj, allowing the Maratha sardars to keep whatever land they conquered as their own feudal territory.

Emboldened by the prospect of winning land and glory, a number of Maratha sardars defeated the Mughals and created their own watans. The constant battles were a colossal drain upon the treasuries and resources of Aurangzeb. Also, his absence from the north meant his governors there gained more autonomy. The Emperor sent an ultimatum to Zulfiqar Khan in 1697- conquer Jinjee or surrender your land and titles! The siege of Jinjee tightened.

The Fall of Jinjee and the Chhatrapati

By this time, Prahlad Pant Pratinidhi, the wise diplomat had passed away, and Parshuram Pant was appointed in his place. Rajaram’s wives and children were also with him in Jinjee. But the Commander-in-Chief, Santaji had been assassinated by another chieftain for petty revenge, and Dhanaji Jadhav had become the Senapati.

Monument to Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav, Commander-in-Chief of Maratha Army; Image Credits: Urunkarsa / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0) — *Monument to Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav, Commander-in-Chief of Maratha Army; Image Credits*

Foreseeing that Jinjee might not hold for much longer, Dhanaji helped Rajaram Maharaj escape the siege and make the arduous journey back to Maharashtra. In 1698 the Mughals captured Jinjee, but Khando Ballal struck a deal to ensure the safe handover of Rajaram’s wives and children.

Thus by 1700 CE, Rajaram Maharaj had reunited safely with his family and council of ministers. But his health had always been delicate, and the strain of the last decade had left him with lung disease. Thus, after 11 years of struggle, Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj passed away at Sinhagad, and the Marathas were in crisis again. Shahu, the true heir, was still a prisoner, while Rajaram’s sons were still children. Who would now to assume the leadership of the Maratha State?

Maharani Tarabai- Reign of the Warrior-Queen

*Maharani Tarabai goes to War, painting by M V Dhurandhar*

At this critical juncture, Maharani Tarabai, wife of Rajaram and daughter of the former Senapati Hambirrao, installed her infant son on the throne and ruled as the Queen Regent. A trained warrior, she worked with the Council of Ministers to continue the guerrilla warfare against the Mughals. Under her leadership, Dhanaji Jadhav’s forces invaded Gujarat and Malwa. She herself led armies along with the Amatya and the Pratinidhi to counter Aurangzeb’s weakened forces. For the next seven years, she systematically began reclaiming lost territory from the Mughals.

The Emperor had expected Maratha resistance to shatter after Rajaram’s death. Now in his eighties, he became hapless. His armies would besiege a fort for months; then pay heavy sums of money to the Marathas in order to capture it. The moment he turned his back, the Marathas led by Tarabai would return and recapture it. The vast amount of resources consumed by over two decades of war had greatly weakened Mughal territories economically. They began to fall to the Marathas. It seemed even the Deccan itself was fighting back! He lost a lot of loot when a river flooded, and an avalanche crippled one of his legs. His armies, tired of the fruitless war, also longed to go home.

At last in 1707, Aurangzeb began to return to Delhi. But on the way, he breathed his last in Aurangabad and was forever buried in Maratha soil. How it must have pained him, that the land of Shivaji Maharaj would claim his bones! Thus died the last ‘Great Mughal’, and with him died the glory of his empire.

Aftermath of the 27-Year War

Aurangzeb’s death marked the end of the war, for his sons immediately began fighting for the throne. In the process, they released Shahu from prison, who returned to claim his birthright. His aunt Tarabai was unwilling to hand over the throne, and a civil war ensued. However, with the support of stalwarts like Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav, Parsoji Bhonsle, Khando Ballal Chitnis, and Balaji Vishwanath Bhat, Shahu Maharaj was crowned Chhatrapati at Satara. He gave Kolhapur and the southern territories to Tarabai and her son as an independent kingdom. His wise reign, and the capable rule of his Peshwas and Sardars, resulted in the creation of a powerful, stable and prosperous Maratha Empire.

Endnote

As mentioned in Part 1, this was a war between a mighty Empire and an Ideal. Evidently, the Ideal won. Why? Because it inspired, united and motivated people to keep fighting beyond reason, or hope. When in doubt, in crisis or despair, I hope the Maratha War of Independence similarly inspires all of us to keep fighting.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on June 26, 2020April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit

The Maratha War of Independence, Part 1: Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj

Nipunbayas / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)

Seldom has a war that went on for so long, been spoken of so little. How many Indians have heard of a war that went on for 27 years, claimed millions of lives, and ended with the humiliation of one of the greatest Empires of its times? The Maratha War of Independence, or the Mughal-Maratha War, certainly deserves a mention in the chronicles of Indian history. For it was not a war of one feuding kingdom against another. It was a war between a mighty Empire and a powerful Ideal- the Ideal of Hindavi Swarajya, or independence of the Indian people. And in the end, the Ideal won.

The Setting

1681. The Lion of the Deccan, the Sun of the Swarajya, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj had passed away a year earlier. His son Sambhaji Maharaj now ruled from Raigad as the Chhatrapati of the fledgling Maratha Empire. Despite intrigue from within his own family and his father’s council of ministers, who had tried to use his adolescent half-brother Rajaram against him; Sambhaji Maharaj had outwitted them and ascended to his birthright. A mighty warrior as well as a scholar, the young king knew he had a difficult task ahead of him. And his apprehension was proved right.

*Portrait of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, 2nd Maratha Emperor*

In Delhi, young Prince Akbar II had rebelled against his father, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, in outrage over his ill-treatment of the Rajputs of Marwar, but lost. The rebels had scattered, with the Mughals hunting them one-by-one. Where could he go to seek refuge from his father’s wrath? The Rajputs had an answer: the hill-forts of the Deccan, under the protection of the Maratha Chhatrapati! With the famed Rajput hero Durgadas Rathore protecting him, Akbar II journeyed south and was given asylum.

When Aurangzeb Alamgir heard, he was furious! That Sambhaji, son of his most implacable adversary, could defy him so openly! Aurangzeb had long dreamt of bringing the Deccan to heel, and conquering all of South India. Gathering an army of more than half a million men from all corners of the Mughal Empire, he left Delhi in September 1681 in a splendor worthy of one of the richest empires in the world. As Stanley Wolpert writes, “Aurangzeb’s encampment was like a moving capital – a city of tents 30 miles in circumference, with some 250 bazaars, with a half million camp followers, 50,000 camels and 30,000 elephants.” The stage was set for his supposedly grand conquest of the Deccan.

He never returned.

Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj- Rudra Personified

*Statue of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj in Pune; Image Source: Apricus / CC BY-SA (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)*

Chhatrapati Sambhaji was campaigning with the majority of his army against the Siddis harassing his coast when he heard of the Mughals moving towards his capital Raigad. Moving swiftly, he defeated the Mughal contingent and drove it back towards Ahmednagar. He returned to Raigad and took command of the defenses, supported by his advisor and close friend the poet Kavi Kalash, his capable wife Maharani Yesubai, his veteran Army Commander-in-Chief or Senapati, Hambirrao Mohite, and other Ministers. Aurangzeb had by then established his encampment at Aurangabad, and his armies now moved to besiege several Maratha forts. The Marathas on their part ably defended their fortresses and denied the Mughals any headway in the campaign.

Aurangzeb attempted to strike a deal with the Portuguese to allow his ships to harbor in Goa, giving him another supply route through the sea. His spies informed him of this, so Sambhaji Maharaj preemptively struck at the northern Portuguese territories. He pushed them back to the Goa coast with such ferocity, that the Viceroy could barely defend the Portuguese headquarters. At the same time, Senapati Hambirrao engaged the army contingents under the Mughal Princes in guerrilla warfare and defeated them. But news came of a huge Mughal army and navy assembling at the borders of the Deccan in early 1684, and the Chhatrapati had to turn back from Goa to secure his territory. Both sides were now slowly coming to a terrible realization: the war was only just beginning.

A Change of Strategies

The enterprising Chhatrapati then signed a defensive treaty with the British, thus procuring artillery and explosives which he used to conquer several forts from the Mughals. Enraged, Aurangzeb sent his general to take Raigad in late 1684, but the Senapati defeated and forced him to retreat.

Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir I; Source: Unknown author / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) — *Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir I; Image Source*

Realizing the futility of his plans, Alamgir also changed his strategies. In April 1685, he attacked the Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda. These crumbling Sultanates subdued by the Marathas, had signed a peace treaty with the Mughals. However, defeating them would give the Emperor a greater hold over the Deccan. Within the next two years, Aurangzeb managed to destroy them and replenished his supplies and manpower, as many of the noblemen from the sultanates joined his armies. Chikkadevraja of Mysore who had been paying tribute to the Marathas, ceased to do so out of fear of the Mughals. With renewed vigor, Aurangzeb returned to what had now become his primary objective- defeating the Marathas.

A Reversal of Fortunes

With diminishing supplies and allies, Sambhaji was no longer able to support Prince Akbar, but helped him escape to Persia. Aurangzeb’s army attacked Satara, but Senapati Hambirrao and his contingent managed to draw the Mughals into the dense jungles of Wai and Mahabaleshwar. The fierce Battle of Wai ensued; the Marathas won but lost their Commander, Hambirrao in the process.

The veteran Commander’s death was a serious blow to the Chhatrapati’s strength and prestige. In addition, political clashes broke out between different factions. Chhatrapati Shivaji’s far-sighted policy of not giving land or ‘watans’ to the noblemen but making them salaried employees, continued by Sambhaji Maharaj, led to some chieftains defecting to the Mughals for selfish gain. As many began to defect, including one of Sambhaji’s brothers-in-law, the situation grew dire. The Chhatrapati called a Council meeting at Sangameshwar to discuss further plans. But his position being betrayed by the defectors, Mughal General Muqarrab Khan led a heavy force and surrounded them. Some leaders having gone ahead, the remaining Marathas fought fearsomely and the new Senapati, Mhaloji Ghorpade died defending his king. But alas! Sambhaji Maharaj and Kavi Kalash were captured and taken to the Mughal camp via secret routes.

A Last Roar of Defiance

The Mughal camp at Bahadurgad was rejoicing at the capture of the Chhatrapati. Sambhaji Maharaj and Kavi Kalash were brought to the camp, made to wear the clothes of prisoners and jesters, and paraded around on camels. The jeers and taunts of the Mughals were worse than any torture for the proud king.

After some more torture, the soldiers brought them before the Emperor in chains. Aurangzeb expected them to submit, but to his astonishment Sambhaji refused to even bow to him! The ‘Chhava’ or ‘Young Lion’ stood erect, boldly daring to look into Aurangzeb’s eyes! According to Mughal customs, this was an insult to the Emperor. Angered, he demanded that Sambhaji turn over his treasuries, as well as the names of his informers, and accept the suzerainty of the Mughals. The Maratha Chhatrapati proudly declined, while Kavi Kalash began to recite poetry praising his king and taunting the Emperor.

Dramatic modern depiction of Sambhaji Maharaj in chains; Image Source: https://www.historyfiles.co.uk — *Dramatic modern depiction of Sambhaji Maharaj in chains; Image Source https://www.historyfiles.co.uk*

Accounts of the torture that followed vary in the description, but not in the horror. The Masir-i-Alamgiri eyewitness chronicles state that Sambhaji’s eyes were put out that same night, and Kavi Kalash deprived of his tongue. The next day, both of them were put to the sword. The Futuh’at-i-Alamgiri further narrates that even after losing his eyes, Sambhaji refused to accept a morsel of food from his captors, or to divulge any information. Other accounts state that his captors repeatedly pressed him to convert to Islam, but he staunchly refused. He was then taken away along with Kavi Kalash, and their limbs were hacked off one by one until death. Their executors threw the pieces of their bodies into the river at Tulapur.

Thus was Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj martyred on 11^th March 1689, and the Maratha Empire plunged into darkness.

The Fall of Raigad and its Aftermath

*Raigad Fort, capital of the Marathas during the reign of Sambhaji Maharaj; Image Source*

During these events, Mughal General Zulfiqar Khan had besieged the Maratha capital, and Sambhaji’s capture lowered the defenders’ morale. In this crucial hour, the widowed Maharani Yesubai took charge. She brought forth Sambhaji’s half-brother Rajaram and asked him to take over the duties of the Chhatrapati, as her own son Shivaji II was but 7 years old. As circumstances worsened, she arranged Rajaram’s escape to Vishalgad fort along with some ministers, and remained behind to defend Raigad. But Raigad fell to the Mughals, betrayed by disgruntled sardars. Yesubai, her son Shivaji II, and many members of the royal family fell into Mughal hands. The Mughal camps erupted in jubilant celebration, for Aurangzeb believed the war finally over.

But he was wrong. The brutal murder of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj would turn out to be Aurangzeb’s greatest mistake. It horrified the Maratha people, and rekindled the fire of freedom in their hearts. Chhatrapati Sambhaji’s sacrifice seemed to transform every blade of grass into a sword, every boulder into a fortress, and every man, woman and child into a warrior. The embers of Maratha self-esteem had received the sacrifice of their king’s blood, and they flared brighter than ever before. It had now truly become a war of the people. The newly-crowned Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj and his Council of Ministers resolved to avenge this sacrifice, and continue the war at any cost.

So how did the Marathas fight back in their darkest hour? Were they able to avenge their fallen King? Find out in Part 2 of this article, coming up soon.

Endnote

Here, let us stop for now, and reflect for a moment on this tremendous sacrifice. Is there an ideal, a purpose, a noble goal in our lives for which we would be willing to stand up and make sacrifices? It is a question worth pondering, as we wait for Part 2 of the Maratha War of Independence.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on June 25, 2020December 29, 2022 by Ashutosh Dixit · 1 Comment

12 Greatest Empires in Indian History- 1. The Maurya Empire

India. The very name evokes a sense of mythic grandeur, of ancient culture, magnificent history and mystic spirituality. The Indian Subcontinent, which makes up most of South Asia, has historically enjoyed a pre-eminent position in the world. Due to its rich and varied natural resources, its fabled wealth, and its geographic position, the region has a huge and multi-cultural history. Since as far back as the early Vedic period, hundreds of dynasties and cultures, conquerors and kings, have sought to establish their dominion over the ‘Sonchidiya’, as it was known.

In this series of articles, we take a look at the 12 Greatest Empires to have been established in the Indian Subcontinent, before the British rule. These empires have been listed chronologically in the order of their rise, and selected based on a number of parameters, such as the total land mass governed, the contribution to arts and culture, and their political, economic and global significance.

1. The Maurya Empire (322 BCE – 185 BCE)

*Maximum Extent of the Maurya Empire; Image Source: Avantiputra7 / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)*

The Maurya Empire was the predominant power in all of South Asia during the Iron Age. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya, it grew to cover an area of 5 million sq. km., stretching out over the present day countries of India (excluding the southernmost strip), Pakistan, Afghanistan and small parts of Iran. The Maurya Empire was the first to effectively unite the entire Indian Subcontinent, and remains the largest Indian Empire till date.

The Rise

In the wake of Alexander the Great’s retreat from India, the north-western parts were under the rule of his generals like Seleucus I Nicator. The rest of India was ruled by a number of independent kingdoms, the largest and most powerful among them being Magadha. The Nanda dynasty that ruled Magadha had become proud and decadent under the incumbent ruler, Dhana Nanda. It was then that the famed philosopher Chanakya and his young student, the charismatic warrior Chandragupta Maurya, rose in rebellion. Securing allies and followers, Chandragupta dethroned the tyrant Dhana Nanda and found himself the Samrat (Emperor) of Magadha.

Chandragupta Maurya, 1st Maurya Emperor — *Representative modern statue of Chandragupta Maurya, 1st Emperor of the Indian Subcontinent*

From there, he launched a campaign westward, soundly defeating Seleucus and his Greek forces. Seleucus made peace with Chandragupta, surrendered territories up to Kandahar and gave his daughter to the young king in marriage. Then Chandragupta rode southward, conquering all of North India and parts of the Deccan plateau, and consolidated it by establishing a competent administration. After a glorious rule of 25 years, he abdicated the throne and became a Jain monk.

The Expansion

Bindusara, the capable son of Chandragupta, further expanded his dominions and conquered the remainder of the Deccan Plateau. His empire now stretched from eastern Iran up to modern-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala. However, the strong eastern kingdom of Kalinga (modern Odisha and north Andhra Pradesh) still resisted Mauryan domination.

After Bindusara’s death, his son Ashoka succeeded to the throne. This young Prince had already made a name for himself as ‘Ashoka the Fierce’ during his father’s wars. Well-trained in warfare and strategy, the ambitious, ruthless Emperor decided to finish the conquest of the entire Subcontinent and waged a long, bloody war with Kalinga. In the end, victory was his!

Zenith of the Empire

*Representative Bust of Emperor Ashoka the Great, 3rd Maurya Emperor*

But though Ashoka achieved victory, the war resulted in casualties of more than a hundred thousand, horrifying the young Emperor. Already a keen student of Buddhism, this resulted in a change of heart for him, and he embraced the path of peace.

Laying down his arms, he went so far as to ban recreational hunting and promoting environmental conservation. He supported Buddhism throughout his Empire, and sent missionaries abroad. His envoys spread out as far as China, Sri Lanka, and South East Asia, preaching Buddhism and peace. He developed infrastructure throughout his empire and maintained friendly relations with all his neighbouring rulers. His magnanimous nature and the prosperity of his Empire earned him the name Ashoka the Great, and his policies and legacy remain the foundation even of modern India.

The Decline

Ashoka’s eldest sons Tivala and Kunala predeceased him, while his third son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra are believed to have become Buddhist monks. Hence, his grandson Dasharath took the throne after his death. Unfortunately, he could not keep the huge empire together for long. By the time of his death, the north-western provinces, as well as Gujarat, Maharashtra and Andhra had seceded from the Empire. While Dasharath’s half-brother and successor Samrat Samprati tried to restore Maurya power in the south, his successors proved incapable of competent rule.

The Maurya Empire formally came to an end when an ambitious general Pushyamitra Shunga assassinated Samrat Brihadratha and founded his own dynasty.

Political, Military, and Administrative Aspects

Politically, the Empire was split into 4 provinces- Tosali (east), Ujjain (west), Suvarnagiri (south), Takshashila (north) – with the imperial capital at Pataliputra (Patna). The Samrat or Emperor was the Head of State, and took policy decisions with the advice of an organized Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers). The Kumara or Crown Prince administered the provinces, similarly assisted by Mahamatyas and a council of ministers.

A large, highly disciplined and professional army protected the Empire’s boundaries and maintained peace and order. According to the Greek historian Megasthenes, the Maurya Empire wielded one of the largest militaries in the world during the Iron Age, with 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots and 9,000 war elephants. A vast espionage system conducted intelligence activities for internal and external security.

In line with the extensive bureaucracy designed and detailed by Chanakya in his treatise Arthashastra, a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. Trade and enterprise were public-private affairs: the state could own and engage in business activities just like ordinary citizens could form corporations of their own. The Empire maintained extensive diplomatic and trade ties with the Persians and the Greek city-states and satrapies to the west, as well as with the kingdoms of South-East Asia.

Social, Economic, and Cultural Aspects

The Maurya Empire comprised of Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists, along with a number of other sects, and promoted peaceful relations both internally and externally. The period saw trade relations established with the Middle East, Europe, China as well as South East Asia. Under Mauryan patronage, universities like Takshashila and Nalanda became international hubs for education and spirituality.

The unification of the region saw the introduction of a common currency, improved and fair taxation under a central government, and a number of public works such as water tanks and roads. A number of temples, stupas and other structures were built, the most famous being the Sanchi Buddhist Stupa. The renowned edicts of Ashoka, erected in various parts of the subcontinent, proclaimed his rules and policies for all his citizens to understand.

*Artistic depiction of Guru Chanakya, mastermind behind the Maurya Empire*

Chanakya Vishnugupta, the architect of this mighty empire, wrote the Arthashastra and the Chanakya Neeti treatises. Today, these are considered pioneering works in the fields of economics and political science on par with Machiavelli’s ‘The Prince’.

Legacy

The Maurya Empire under Chandragupta and his descendants established the identity of the Indian Subcontinent as one united entity, known as ‘Hind’ by the Persians and ‘India’ by the Greeks. Due to the political and economic stability, the trade relations established with other nations made India’s wealth and power known to the rest of the world. Even today, when the Subcontinent has been divided into 5-6 different nations, the Mauryas cast a long shadow over its history.

Lion Capital of Ashoka, Vidhana Soudha; Image Source: © Moheen Reeyad / Wikimedia Commons / "Lion Capital of Ashoka, Vidhana Soudha (03)" — *Lion Capital of Ashoka, Vidhana Soudha; Image Source: © Moheen Reeyad / Wikimedia Commons / “Lion Capital of Ashoka, Vidhana Soudha (03)”*

The Republic of India adopted the Lion Capital at Sarnath as the national emblem, symbolizing victory. The Ashoka Chakra, adopted from the Buddhist Dhamma Chakra, sits at the centre of the national flag symbolizing righteousness.

Chandragupta Maurya first built the famous Grand Trunk Road which stretches from Chittagong, Bangladesh to Kabul, Afghanistan and connects the Subcontinent to Central Asia; while Ashoka later expanded on it. Rebuilt and repaired many times from then till now, it remains one of the most important roads in Indian history. The treatises of Chanakya continue to educate modern India on economics and politics, and the numerous stupas, edicts and sculptures forever stand testament to the greatest empire of the Indian Subcontinent.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on June 25, 2020June 6, 2022 by Ashutosh Dixit · 1 Comment

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj: A Founding Father of Modern India

Statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj at Pratapgad

The glorious annals of the history of the Indian Subcontinent span over 5000 years. From the first cities that sprung up in the Indus Valley, to the modern countries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal, the Subcontinent has seen its fair share of states and empires rise and fall. From the Maurya Empire that ruled the entire Subcontinent and beyond in 300 BCE, to the Golden Age of the Gupta Dynasty; the Gurjar-Pratiharas in the North to the Cholas in the South, and from the Hindu Kshatriya Rajputs in Rajasthan and the Buddhist Shaka-Kushans to the Turco-Persian Muslim Sultanates of Delhi, the Subcontinent has ever been a multi-cultural whirlpool.

And yet, some men and women have left an indelible print in the pages of history, as well as in the minds and hearts of the generations to come. One such name, of course, is Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj.

Portrait of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Emperor of the Marathas — *Rare portrait of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj at the Rijksmuseum; Image Credit: Unknown author / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)*

Shivaji Maharaj was a 17^th-century warrior-king who, with his brilliant military and administrative genius and a handful of rugged soldiers, carved out his own kingdom in western Maharashtra of present-day India. Prevailing against the Adil Shahi Sultanate and the mighty forces of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, Shivaji Maharaj went on to become the founder and first Emperor or ‘Chhatrapati’ of the Maratha Empire. This Empire would emerge supreme after decades of warfare against the Mughals and influence the entire Subcontinent till the early 19^th century.

But in the galaxy of distinguished men and women that have graced this ancient land, what makes Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj stand out?

Political Significance

The Maratha Empire was a significant political development in Indian history. With his coronation proclaiming official sovereignty in 1674, Shivaji Maharaj did the unthinkable: he reversed the trends of history. With the tolerance of Emperor Akbar’s reign having long given way to the bigotry of Aurangzeb, the successful Maratha Revolution struck a huge blow to Mughal prestige and emboldened other disillusioned feudatories to rise in rebellion.

As the Empire later expanded northward under Shivaji’s grandson Chhatrapati Shahu I and his capable Prime Ministers or Peshwas, it became the first Empire in 700 years (after the Rashtrakutas) to have conquered from the south of the Narmada river to the north. At the same time, while being tolerant of all faiths, the Maratha Empire was officially a Hindu state, following the ancient Indian principles of governance. Thus, the Maratha Empire became the first pan-India Hindu Empire in 700 years.

Military Contributions

Shivaji Raje Bhonsale, as the son of a local feudal chieftain, started his conquests in 1646 with only a few hundred infantry or foot-soldiers. At the end of his reign in 1680, the Marathas had an Army, comprising of infantry, cavalry and artillery, as well as a Navy, with a standing manpower of over 1,00,000 soldiers, and control of over 360 forts in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.

In later years, the Maratha military under the leadership of Peshwa Bajirao I and his successors went on to conquer the major parts of India from Attock in present-day Pakistan to Orissa in the East, and Peshawar in the north to Thanjavur in the south.

*Highest Extent of the Maratha Empire (1759); Source: Shivaji- His Life and Times by G.B. Mehendale*

What made the Marathas such a powerful military force? In his lifetime, Shivaji Maharaj had perfected the tactics of asymmetrical or guerilla warfare in order to successfully defeat foes with numerically superior armies. Time and again, the later Maratha leaders used the Chhatrapati’s strategies to revolutionize warfare in the Indian Subcontinent!

Not stopping at land-based warfare, the intrepid king also realized the importance of a strong navy and a secure coastline to counter naval attacks and the growing influence of foreign colonists. With the vision of developing his fledgling empire into a naval power when no other Indian ruler was doing so, he built a formidable navy and sea-fortresses like Sindhudurg or Vijaydurg. The Maratha Navy would go on to defeat the Portuguese, the Siddi and the English in major naval battles. For this stupendous foresight, he is rightly hailed as the ‘Father of Modern Indian Navy’.

Administrative Brilliance

– The Pradhan Mandal

Shivaji Maharaj laid the foundation of a decentralized monarchy, by appointing his own Cabinet of Eight Ministers or Ashta Pradhan Mandal. Headed by a Prime Minister or Peshwa, each minister governed one administrative department, much like any modern government; although the ultimate authority was vested in the absolute monarch. The original positions were:

Peshwa or Mukhya Pradhan = Prime Minister

Shuru-navis or Sacheev = Secretary

Mazumdar or Amatya = Finance Minister

Sar-naubat or Senapati = Army Commander-in-Chief

Waqia-navis or Mantri = Interior Minister

Sumant or Dabeer = Foreign Minister

Nyayadhish = Chief Justice

Panditrao = High Priest and in-charge of Education

Later on, a couple of more positions were added, such as:

Pratinidhi = Viceroy/Representative

Sarkhel = Navy Admiral

This revolutionary idea changed governance in India, making administration more efficient and ensuring a just and prosperous government. This decentralization allowed for great resilience and resurgence in tough times.

After the cruel execution of Shivaji’s valiant son and successor Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, and the fall of his capital, the Mughal Emperor believed the Marathas were effectively crushed. However, from the stronghold of Jinjee in Tamil Nadu, Shivaji’s younger son Chhatrapati Rajaram could continue the struggle through his able ministers such as Ramchandra Pant ‘Amatya’ and Shankaraji Pant ‘Sacheev’, and brilliant ‘Senapatis’ such as Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav.

– Abolishment of ‘Watandari’ System

With his characteristic foresight, Chhatrapati Shivaji also abolished the watandari feudal system of the medieval era, based on land ownership by the local noblemen and lords. Instead, he established a system where all his noblemen were appointed and salaried employees of the government, thus strengthening centralized power. While the feudal noblemen were allowed to continue their titles and minor privileges, the revenue collection was now entirely handled by salaried central government employees, prohibiting the exploitation of farmers. No king had ever thought of abolishing the feudal system in that time, and this step has been praised as a precursor of modern administration.

Unfortunately, during the latter half of the Mughal-Maratha War, the Marathas were forced to reinstate the watandari system to retain their noblemen’s loyalty. However, the principle of abolishing this prevalent practice clearly illustrates the administrative brilliance of the ‘Great Maratha’.

Economic Measures

Not stopping at administrative reforms, Shivaji Maharaj also took great efforts to improve the economy of his fledgling kingdom. He improved upon the revenue system set by Dadaji Konddev, to standardize the measurement of land and approximate yield based on the type of soil. He provided incentives to farmers so that they were encouraged to start working on previously unfarmed land. Also, by abolishing the revenue collection by watandars, he increased the tax received by the central government as well as the portion that was left with the peasants, benefitting them both.

Apart from agriculture and industry, he also promoted trade by land and sea. Maratha merchant vessels began plying their goods from the Konkan up to Iran, Turkey, and Arabia. He collected octroi from traders on land as well as the sea, especially from the Europeans. One example of his excellent policies is when he increased the tax on Portuguese-produced salt, so that people began buying salt produced in Maratha territories.

Social and Cultural Policies

Young Shivaji had been raised in a deeply religious Hindu upbringing by his mother Jijabai. The oppression faced by Hindus during his formative years left a deep impression upon him, and he rebuilt many temples that had been destroyed by Islamic or European invaders. He also provided the choice of reconversion to Hindus who had been forcibly converted, and insisted on using Sanskrit terminologies in his administration rather than the prevalent Persian. He ordered the ‘Rajyavyavaharkosha’ to be compiled, in order to replace Persian words in the Marathi language with their Sanskrit-based counterparts. Thus, he inculcated a sense of pride, belonging and unity in a native population that had long suffered against foreign yoke.

*Saptakoteshwar Temple, Goa built by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj after the Portuguese had destroyed the original*

Despite this, he respected all religions and peoples, and treated all his subjects with equal and absolute justice and compassion. Unlike others of the time, his disciplined armies never indulged in wanton destruction or looting, and surrendered enemies were treated with dignity. The respect shown to the women and children captured during wartime is worthy of admiration.

Also, in times where appointing hereditary heirs or political supporters to high positions was common, he appointed people based on their talent or capability rather than arbitrary measures of birth, community or caste, ensuring the right people in right positions. His fair policies and deep concern for his subjects made him a King beloved by his people.

Influence and Inspiration

Chhatrapati Shivaji’s great vision was of Hindavi Swarajya- to throw off the decadent Mughal rule and unite all of the Indian Subcontinent under the banner of ‘Self-Rule’ or ‘Independence’ based on indigenous or ‘dharmic’ principles. This grand vision inspired and encouraged a number of other heroes- such as Durgadas Rathore in Marwar, Raja Chhatrasal in Bundelkhand, and Lachit Borphukan in Assam- to resist the cruel and intolerant policies of Aurangzeb.

This vision was taken forward by Shivaji’s sons and grandsons, their ministers and generals. Eventually, the Marathas conquered most of India including Delhi, where the Mughal Emperor was made a puppet. For over 70 years, the Bhagwa Dhwaj of the Marathas fluttered throughout the nation as its pre-eminent power, and India flourished under its watchful gaze. Chhatrapati Shivaji’s vision lived on for centuries after his death, inspiring everyone from Rani Laxmibai to Lokmanya Tilak, Swami Vivekananda to Rabindranath Tagore, and Veer Savarkar to Netaji Bose in their fight for righteousness and freedom from tyranny- a testament to his greatness.

Modern India and the Chhatrapati

When the Europeans arrived on the shores of the subcontinent and began to study the history of this ancient land, they were understandably perplexed. Unlike the history of Europe, they were unable to classify Indian history into the ‘Classical, Medieval, Modern’ categorization. Several alternatives were proposed to herald the beginning of Modern India- such as the rise of the Mughals (1526) or their downfall after Aurangzeb and the rise of Marathas (beginning 1707).

The Coronation of Shivaji Maharaj as 'Chhatrapati' at Raigad Fort in 1674 — *The Coronation as ‘Chhatrapati’ at Raigad Fort in 1674*

Whichever way we look at it: if we consider the above points, it cannot be denied that the life and work of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj had a significant impact on the Subcontinent. His ideas, foresight, policies and principled character are an example for modern India to follow. The Empire he founded went on to change the status quo of the country and began the process of moving towards the modern age, till it was divided and conquered by the British. For all this transformation, it is imperative to celebrate this venerated figure as one of the founders of modern India.

One idea- Hindavi Swarajya- and look at its result! What is true greatness, but that your vision lives on long after you and continues to inspire people to fight for it? Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was thus, not only an ideal warrior, administrator, and ruler, but truly a visionary: one of those rare men that transform the world with their ideas during their very lifetime. To this inspirational hero, our symbol of freedom and hope, one of the Founding Fathers of Modern India, I pay my humble respects.

Jai Bhavani, Jai Shivaji! Har Har Mahadev!

– Ashutosh Dixit

Sources:

Administrative System of the Marathas- Surendranath Sen
Military System of the Marathas- Surendranath Sen
Shivaji- His Life and Times- G. B. Mehendale