Maratha History Archives - Words and Swords

Posted on April 28, 2021April 29, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 4 Comments

Peshwa Bajirao Ballal, Part 2: Maratha Supremacy in India

Shaniwarwada; Image Source: NishantAChavan, CC BY-SA 3.0

On 28th April 1740, Peshwa Bajirao I passed away, leaving behind a vast empire and legacy. The Indian government released a stamp in 2004 commemorating him. What sets him apart from the other great leaders in Indian history?

In Part 1, we traced the first 10 years of Bajirao Ballal’s career as Peshwa or Prime Minister of the Maratha Empire. Now, we take a look at how he established Maratha supremacy in India, and study his personality and legacy.

*Stamp of Peshwa Bajirao, by Indian Government*; Image Source

Peshwa Bajirao I- A Masterful Personality

Invoking the Mahabharat story where Arjun chose Lord Krishna alone for his side rather than his entire army, Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj was often known to say, “If I had a choice between an army and Bajirao, I’d choose Bajirao!” Soldiers from all over the Deccan also preferred to serve him, and followed him anywhere with the utmost faith. Why?

Social Policies and Lifestyle

Although from a traditional Brahmin family, Bajirao I never discriminated among his people. He chose and promoted people based on merit, and many of his lieutenants came from humble backgrounds. Malharrao Holkar was a mercenary from the Dhangar (shepherd) caste, Ranoji Shinde was a Maratha Kunbi (farmer) and served as the Peshwa’s valet, Govindpant Kher Bundele was a personal assistant, Govind and Ramchandra Patwardhan were sons of a respected but poor Pandit. Under Bajirao’s patronage, they all rose to great heights as generals and noblemen.

The Peshwa also lived the same kind of life as his soldiers; sharing in their troubles and hardships without special privileges. He even ate meat and sat in the same ‘pangat’ with them, no matter their caste or class. Hence, he became the most beloved military leader of his time, and led his loyal troops to victory over many enemies!

*The enemies defeated by Marathas under Peshwa Bajirao: Mughals, Nizam, British, Siddi, and Portuguese*

Discipline and Loyalty

Even Bajirao’s enemies admitted his discipline and readiness for any situation; and the same was instilled in his army. His discipline was only exceeded by his loyalty to the Maratha Empire and Shahu Maharaj. Though he became the most powerful chieftain of his times, he always considered himself the Chhatrapati’s servant, paying him due respect and heeding his advice. He rarely disobeyed the Chhatrapati’s direct command…except once.

The Battle of Dabhoi

The Peshwa and the Senapati had always worked closely in the Pradhan Mandal. However, in 1726, a dispute arose when Chhatrapati Shahu gave the Gujarat administration to Bajirao’s brother Chimaji Appa. Senapati Khanderao Dabhade, who controlled most of Gujarat, protested that it would reduce his prestige and income. When he died in 1728, his son Trimbakrao became the Senapati. At this time, tired of constant battles with the Marathas, the Mughal Subhedar of Gujarat, Raja Abhay Singh approached Chimaji to bring peace to the region, in return for half the revenue.

This provoked the Dabhades. Peshwa Bajirao tried to negotiate peace by offering them half the revenue of Malwa. However, the Nizam of Hyderabad convinced Trimbakrao and his mother Umabai this was the Peshwa’s ploy to steal their territory! Trimbakrao rebelled. The Nizam and Mughals supported him, thrilled at the chance of hurting Bajirao.

Peshwa vs Senapati

Alarmed at the tensions between his two ministers, Shahu Maharaj told Chimaji to hand over Gujarat to Trimbakrao. However, Bajirao knew this could embolden other Sardars to blackmail for their demands. weakening central authority. Hence, while Holkar kept the Nizam and Mughals occupied, Bajirao and Chimaji reached Gujarat and fought the Senapati at Dabhoi. Peshwa Bajirao had given orders not to harm Trimbakrao, but he died of a stray bullet.

*Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj (left) and Peshwa Bajirao I (right)*

Regretful, Bajirao returned to Satara. The Chhatrapati knew that by allying with the Nizam, Trimbakrao had betrayed the Marathas. He asked Umabai to forgive Bajirao and Chimaji and make peace. The revenue of Gujarat was shared equally between the Senapati and the central government.

Diplomacy with the Nizam

In 1732, Nizam ul-Mulk and Peshwa Bajirao met at Rui Rameshwar to discuss terms. They signed a secret pact to stay out of each other’s way. Why did he make peace with a man who had repeatedly opposed him? The answer reveals both Bajirao’s foresight as well as decision-making ability.

*Nizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad and Mughal Paatshah Muhammad Shah I*

Bajirao knew he could not fight on two fronts forever. He had to decide whether the Marathas should focus on liberating the Deccan from the Nizam, or capturing North India from the Mughals. He knew the Nizam was a cunning, experienced strategist and protected his new territory well. On the other hand, though the Mughals had far greater armies and resources, they were divided and lacked strong leadership. Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah cared only about luxury and pleasures. Boldly, he decided to focus on Delhi, and establish Marathas as the supreme power!

The Janjira Campaign

The Siddis of Janjira, African-descended Mughal Sardars, had long troubled the Marathas. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Peshwa Moropant, and Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj had all fought but failed to capture their island fort. After Chhatrapati Sambhaji’s death, they gained control of much of the Konkan, including former Maratha capital Raigad. Over 44 years, they imposed religious taxes and persecuted Hindus.

In 1733, Chhatrapati Shahu planned a campaign and sent Peshwa Bajirao, Shripatrao Pant Pratinidhi, and Sarkhel Sekhoji Angre. They captured the forts of Tale, Ghosale, Avchitgad, Bankot, Mandangad and Danda Rajpuri. Soon, they recaptured Raigad; and an emotional Shahu regained his childhood home and the Samadhi of Chhatrapati Shivaji!

Soon, the British sent help to the Siddis, and Maratha Admiral Sekhoji died suddenly. These setbacks, along with the Konkan monsoon, made Bajirao withdraw the campaign. However, he succeeded in appointing a new Siddi at Janjira who was favorable to the Marathas. In later years, with Bajirao in the north, the powerful Siddi Sat rebelled. In a fierce battle in 1736, Chimaji Appa killed Siddi Sat and his 1300 men. The Siddis finally became Maratha vassals.

Consolidating Administrative Measures

To focus on Delhi, Bajirao knew it was important to have a strong northern base. Hence, he sent Chimaji Appa and handpicked Sardars to establish a competent administration. The Sardars defeated Sawai Raja Jaisingh at Mandsaur (1732), and Muzaffar Khan at Sironj (1734).

Malwa, the largest Indian province, was divided between Malharrao Holkar at Indore, Ranoji Shinde at Ujjain, and the Pawars at Dhar. Govindpant Kher was appointed to govern the Bundelkhand province and maintain the Bundela alliance, becoming known as Govindpant ‘Bundele’.

We can see the Peshwa’s administrative vision through these measures which brought peace, prosperity, and stability to the newly-won provinces.

Diplomacy in Rajputana

The Mughal court contained two factions. One, led by Wazir Qamruddin Khan and the Rajputs advocated peace with the Marathas. The other, led by Mughal noblemen demanded war. Hence, in 1736, Peshwa Bajirao visited Rajputana to discuss terms.

*Portrait of Raja of Jaipur and Maharana of Udaipur; Source: The Era of Bajirao, Dr. Uday Kulkarni*

In Udaipur, Maharana Jagat Singh II gave him a grand welcome and led him to a golden throne beside his own. But to everyone’s surprise, Bajirao sat down on the cushioned silver step below it. When asked why, his answer is an excellent example of diplomatic brilliance.

“I am merely a Prime Minister; the Chhatrapati sits on the throne, and my place is at his feet. Moreover, the accompanying throne is of your ancestor Maharana Pratap! The Sisodias never accepted the Mughals as their masters, so you are worthy of the same status as the Chhatrapati.”

Overjoyed, Jagat Singh sat down next to him. Paying the Peshwa a grand tribute he promised friendship. The Sisodias did not oppose the Marathas for several decades. However, in Jaipur, when Sawai Jaisingh made similar arrangements, Bajirao easily sat on the throne. When Jaisingh asked why, he said, “The Kachchwahas of Jaipur are servants of the Mughals since a century, and have sold their daughters to the Paatshah.” Thus shamed; Jaisingh paid a tribute, and agreed to persuade the Paatshah.

The Rajputs strongly argued in favor of accepting Maratha demands; however, Muhammad Shah refused. It would cost him dearly.

Battle of Delhi

At the end of 1736, Bajirao set out from Pune with an army of 50,000. In Malwa, he was joined by Holkar and Shinde; together they collected the Malwa revenue, while Pilaji Jadhavrao did the same in Bundelkhand. In February 1737, the Marathas reached the Yamuna River, and Malharrao Holkar crossed it with an advance force of 10,000.

*L-R: Khan Dauran, Wazir Qamruddin Khan, Muzaffar Khan; Source: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (The Era of Bajirao Book)*

Alarmed, the Mughals sent huge armies led by Saadat Khan, Khan Dauran, Muhammad Khan Bangash, and the Wazir, totaling 1.5 lakh soldiers. Unaware, Malharrao found himself facing Saadat Khan with 50,000 men, and had to retreat. Saadat Khan thought he had defeated the entire Maratha army, and wrote to the Emperor accordingly. Soon, Khan Dauran and Bangash joined him at Agra for celebrations! The Wazir was also close by, and now two huge armies lay in between Peshwa Bajirao and Delhi. What would he do?

Through a narrow forest path, Bajirao led his forces between the two armies straight to Delhi and laid it under siege!

The terrified Mughal Emperor hid in the Red Fort, while Govind Patwardhan easily defeated the remaining army in Delhi. Bajirao could have ravaged Delhi, but that would have broken diplomatic cords. So, Bajirao did not harm the citizens. The Emperor finally agreed to all demands, and Bajirao returned victorious. Delhi had been defeated!

Battle of Bhopal

The Mughal prestige was completely shattered, its weakness exposed to the world. Desperate, the Paatshah called the Nizam with a mighty army to Delhi, made peace, and offered him Malwa in return for defeating Bajirao. A combined elite army of 80,000 marched south with powerful cannons. The Nizam also called his son Nasir Jung from Hyderabad with more men.

Undeterred, Peshwa Bajirao called his banners and marched north with Malharrao Holkar, Ranoji Shinde, Pilaji Jadhavrao, Yashwantrao Pawar and 80,000 cavalry. Chimaji Appa stayed behind to block Nasir’s army, while Raghuji Bhonsle delayed Nasir by guerrilla warfare.

The Nizam heard of Bajirao’s approach, and took shelter in Bhopal Fort. The Peshwa besieged Bhopal, and began to starve out the enemy. When they tried to leave in a Square formation, the Marathas harassed them with guerrilla tactics while avoiding their cannons. Soon, they ran out of food, and in January 1738, the Nizam surrendered.

The Mughals signed a treaty accepting Malwa as part of the Maratha Empire, and the Maratha rights to collect revenue from the Narmada to the Yamuna River. The Nizam swore upon the Quran to never again fight against them. The Marathas turned to the Konkan for a long-pending war with the Portuguese.

Nadir Shah’s Invasion- Hindu-Pat-Paatshahi?

Hearing of the Mughals’ weakness, Nadir Shah of Iran invaded India in 1739. Defeating the helpless Mughals, his looting, raping, burning hordes destroyed Delhi and imprisoned the Emperor. Horrified, all eyes turned to the most powerful man in the Subcontinent- Peshwa Bajirao. However, the majority of the Maratha army was engaged in heavy war with the Portuguese, so he was forced to wait at Burhanpur with a small force.

Many thought if the Mughal Emperor died, a Hindu could become Paatshah of Delhi. But Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj had no desire to sit on the Delhi throne, as per his promise to Aurangzeb. The Rajputs suggested their most noble Maharana of Udaipur should take Delhi, but all knew that Peshwa Bajirao would be the real power behind the throne.

But before they could initiate this, Nadir Shah reinstated Muhammad Shah as Emperor and left with billions in looted treasure. Shahu Maharaj counseled Peshwa Bajirao to continue the Mughal Emperor as a puppet to preserve peace for the time being, while taking the administration in his own hands.

Battle of Vasai

The Portuguese had ruled parts of the Konkan for 200 years, perpetrating horrors and converting people by force. In 1737, Chimaji Appa began a massive liberation campaign and took Thane Fort, Belapur, Dharavi, and Revdanda.

*Statue of Sardar Chimaji Appa Bhat, brother of Peshwa Bajirao, at Vasai Fort which he won from the Portuguese*

After defeating the Nizam, all the Maratha forces converged at Vasai Fort, which the Portuguese had defended against 3 attacks. In 1739, finally, at the cost of thousands of Maratha lives, Vasai fell. The Portuguese surrendered and left for Goa, their last remaining territory. Konkan was free at last!

Sunset at Narmada

Thus by 1740, the Maratha Empire stretched from Gujarat (west) to Gondwana (east), and Thanjavur and Srirangpatnam (south) to the Yamuna River (north). In 20 years, Peshwa Bajirao had fought 41 major battles without losing a single one; and expanded it from 4-5 districts to covering 30% of India in 20 years.

*Source: Untold History Marathi (YouTube)*

However, in his last year, Bajirao faced household opposition due to his unorthodox habits (meat, alcohol consumption), and his closeness to Mastani, adding to his stress. After defeating Nasir Jung, he fell ill. Exhausted beyond measure physically and mentally, the Great Peshwa breathed his last at Raverkhedi. As Sir Richard Temple describes, “He died as he lived, in camp under canvas among his men, and is remembered to this day among the Marathas as the fighting Peshwa and the incarnation of Hindu energy.”

He left behind a confident, competent generation of leaders, and an unfinished dream of flying the Maratha flag at Attock. His sons and nephew accomplished it, and for 70 years the Marathas remained Masters of the Subcontinent!

– Ashutosh Dixit

References:

The Era of Bajirao- Dr. Uday Kulkarni
New History of the Marathas- G.S. Sardesai
Peshwa Bajirao I and the Maratha Expansion- Prof. V.G. Dighe

Posted on April 17, 2021April 17, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 9 Comments

Peshwa Bajirao Ballal, Part 1: The Great Maratha Expansion

Statue of Peshwa Bajirao I; Image Source: Amit20081980, CC BY-SA 3.0

301 years ago, on 17^th April 1720, this man became the Prime Minister or Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. In 20 years, he substantially and irrevocably changed the political and cultural map of the Indian Subcontinent. The legacy of this man would define the next half a century in India, and his achievements would become legend. This man was Peshwa Bajirao Ballal Bhat.

In this article, we look at his incredible achievements, to better understand why he is counted among the foremost military commanders and empire-builders in the Indian Subcontinent.

Appointment as Peshwa

In April 1720, Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj, the Maratha Emperor faced a problem.

Only the previous year, his experienced Prime Minister, Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath Bhat had returned from Delhi. He had secured from the Mughals the independence of the Maratha Swarajya, the release of the Chhatrapati’s mother and wife, and the rights to collect taxes from the 6 Deccan provinces. But now, Balaji had passed away. The fledgling Maratha Empire still faced many internal and external enemies, and the Chhatrapati knew he needed a dynamic young leader to consolidate his power and defeat them.

Dramatic representation of Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj appointing Peshwa Bajirao I — *Dramatic representation of Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj and Peshwa Bajirao I*

It was then that he was reminded of Balaji’s charismatic elder son, Bajirao Ballal Bhat, renowned as a warrior. Bajirao had accompanied his father to Delhi, fought against the Mughals and protected Shahu’s family. He was barely 19 years old, but Shahu Maharaj had an eye for talent. Accordingly, on 17^th April, Chhatrapati Shahu appointed Bajirao as his new Peshwa; a decision that would alter the fate of the Subcontinent.

The Challenges

Peshwa Bajirao Ballal ascended to his Seat, supported by his experienced mother Radhabai, his loving wife Kashibai, and his ever-loyal younger brother Chimaji Appa. However, he had several problems to face.

The Uncooperative Ministers

The decision to appoint a 19-year old ‘boy’ as Prime Minister did not sit well with senior ministers such as the Pratinidhi (Viceroy), Mantri (Interior Minister) and Sumant (Foreign Minister). Bajirao soon realized they wouldn’t support him; and found their policies too cautious and defensive. However, Bajirao had grown up listening to the heroic exploits of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, and longed to fulfill his dream of Hindavi Swarajya.

Numerous Powerful Enemies

The Marathas had won their independence, but were still surrounded by enemies. On the west coast, the Portuguese controlled vast parts of the Konkan and Goa, perpetrating forceful conversions on people. The Siddis troubled the Marathas from Janjira, and the British from Bombay. To the east, Nizam ul-Mulk refused to let them collect the taxes as agreed; while in the north, the declining Mughal Empire still had vast resources. Worse, Raja Sambhaji II of Kolhapur, cousin of Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj, wanted to usurp the senior throne and become Chhatrapati himself!

Decentralized Maratha Power

After the death of Aurangzeb, the Marathas had grown very powerful. However, the individual Maratha sardars were quite autonomous, and apart from the taxes and armies supplied to the Empire, thought mainly about their benefit. They needed a strong, uniform, centralized leadership which the aging Chhatrapati couldn’t provide.

Military Leadership and Reforms

Addressing these challenges, he gathered around him a number of young warriors- his brother Chimaji Appa, Fateh Sinh Bhonsale (the Chhatrapati’s adopted son), Malharrao Holkar, Ranoji Shinde, Udaji Pawar and his brothers. He also earned the support of the veterans Ambajipant Purandare and Pilaji Jadhavrao, the Army Commander, Senapati Khanderao Dabhade, and the Navy Admiral, Sarkhel Kanhoji Angre.

(L-R) Raja Fateh Sinh Bhonsale, Chimaji Appa Bhat, Malharrao Holkar, Ranoji Shinde, Ambajipant Purandare, Pilaji Jadhavrao (Bajirao's inner circle); and Senapati Khanderao Dabhade and Sarkhel Kanhoji Angre, his cooperative colleagues in the Pradhan Mandal — (L-R) Raja Fateh Sinh Bhonsale, Chimaji Appa Bhat, Malharrao Holkar, Ranoji Shinde, Ambajipant Purandare, Pilaji Jadhavrao (Bajirao’s inner circle); and Senapati Khanderao Dabhade and Sarkhel Kanhoji Angre, his cooperative colleagues in the Pradhan Mandal; Image credits to respective artists

Taking charge of the Empire’s central military, Bajirao trained them with discipline and rigor, making them a force to be reckoned with. Having studied their enemies, he knew their cannons and artillery were far superior to the Marathas. Hence, he decided to focus on the cavalry division and carry out guerrilla warfare which was their traditional expertise. He introduced several reforms to his troops:

His army carried 3 horses between each 2 men, of which one was always without any load. This ensured that if one horse got tired, they would immediately replace it with the free horse, and allow the tired one to run unburdened. This allowed them to cover very long distances with lightning speed, only stopping when the riders themselves had to sleep.
He ensured that they traveled light, carrying nothing but their weapons and light armor. The troops lived off the land, hunting in the forests, buying food from farmers, or looting enemy supplies. Sometimes, they even left their tents behind for speed and slept upon their saddles!
He trained his troops to always trap the enemy at a location favorable to them. There, they would cut off the enemy’s food and water supply, bringing even the toughest army to its knees!

Early Years

In his very first year he assisted Kanhoji Angre in defeating the British fleet; while in 1724, he helped the rebel Nizam ul-Mulk to defeat Mughal forces. Since his visit to Delhi, Peshwa Bajirao had observed the weakness and decadence of the Mughals. Now, he knew the time was right to go on the offensive.

*Shrimant Peshwa Bajirao I, Prime Minister of the Maratha Empire; Image Source: Amit20081980, CC BY-SA 4.0*

One day, in a meeting of all the ministers at court, Bajirao thunderously declared his grand vision:

“The (Mughal) paatshahi is weak, has no life left in it…Give us the order! I will bring armies and treasures and place them at the feet of the swami (Chhatrapati). I will counter the Nizam (in South India) and campaign in Hindustan (North India) as well! The Thorle Maharaj (Chhatrapati Shivaji) wished to capture Hindustan; that remains incomplete. It is for this purpose that swami has risen to power.
Strike! Strike at the trunk of the withering tree and the branches will fall off themselves. Listen but to my counsel; and I shall plant the Maratha flag on the walls of Attock!”

Hearing this, Shahu Maharaj exclaimed, “With such men in my service, I can take the boundaries beyond the Himalayas!” And so they set out to create the Hindavi Swarajya of Chhatrapati Shivaji’s dreams!

The Karnataka Campaigns

In 1725, Peshwa Bajirao led his first successful expedition into the Karnatak along with Fateh Sinh Bhonsale, the Senapati, and Shripatrao Pant Pratinidhi. The Marathas proceeded via Bijapur to Chitaldurg, collecting their taxes, renewing their alliances, and defeating those who opposed them. Also, Fateh Sinh took some forces to Thanjavur (in Tamil Nadu) where ruled the Chhatrapati’s cousin Raja Sharfoji Bhonsale, and renewed their old alliance.

The next year Bajirao campaigned south again, reaching as far as Srirangapatnam, created alliances with the Nawabs of Bednur and Arcot, resolving their disputes with Raja Sharfoji and establishing peace. However, before he could proceed further, he received an urgent summons from his Emperor.

Taking advantage of the Maratha army’s absence, Nizam-ul-Mulk had supported Sambhaji II of Kolhapur and marched against Shahu Maharaj. Of course, his actual goal was to destroy Shahu and appoint Sambhaji II as his own puppet! But just when all seemed lost, Bajirao returned. Sending Chimaji Appa with Shahu Maharaj to the safety of Purandar fort, Peshwa Bajirao Ballal then rode into battle.

The Battle of Palkhed

The Nizam, Sambhaji II and their armies began ravaging Pune and adjoining areas. Here, the Nizam arranged Sambhaji’s marriage and announced him as the new Chhatrapati! With his powerful cannons he began capturing nearby forts. By attacking Bajirao’s home, the Nizam wanted to bring him into open confrontation. After all, if a man’s home was attacked, wouldn’t he rush to defend it?

Instead, Bajirao set out with his trusted Sardars- Holkar, Shinde, Pawar, Somvanshi- and a pure cavalry force. Using guerrilla tactics, he plundered the Nizam’s territory at Jalna and Sindkhed, defeating Aiwaz Khan. Then ravaging through the Varhad region, he crossed Khandesh with lightning speed and reached Gujarat! Here, he encouraged the Mughal Subhedar to attack the Nizam! Then, he spread a rumor that he would attack the Nizam’s wealthy cities of Burhanpur and Aurangabad. The Nizam fell prey to the same tactic he had tried to use- he abandoned his campaign and returned to protect his home!

Battle of Palkhed: Movements of Nizam ul-Mulk and Peshwa Bajirao I; Image Source: Mahusha, CC BY-SA 4.0 — *Battle of Palkhed: Movements of Nizam ul-Mulk and Peshwa Bajirao I*; *Image Source: Mahusha, CC BY-SA 4.0*

The Nizam Surrenders

*Nizam ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I, 1st Nizam of Hyderabad*

With his immense speed, Bajirao was covering 3 times the distance of the Nizam. So, the Nizam left his heavy cannons and supplies behind to increase his speed. This was exactly what Bajirao had been waiting for! With deadly speed, he trapped the Nizam at Palkhed in February 1728. With no food, no water, no cannons, the Nizam was helpless. The Maratha cavalry continuously circled his camp from the thick forests, killing anyone who tried to escape.

Within a week, the Nizam surrendered, and signed the Treaty of Mungi-Shevgaon. In it, he agreed to accept Shahu Maharaj as the Chhatrapati of the Marathas, withdraw his support to Sambhaji II, restore all the captured land, and faithfully pay the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi taxes of the six Deccan provinces to Shahu Maharaj. Thus, Peshwa Bajirao defeated the Nizam, a wily strategist who was 30 years older and had been trained by Aurangzeb himself!

Consequently, eminent Indian historian Sir Jadunath Sarkar called Bajirao a ‘heaven-born cavalry leader’ for these tactics. British Field Marshall Bernard Montgomery called the Battle of Palkhed ‘a masterpiece of strategic mobility’, and used similar tactics to defeat Nazi German forces in 1942!

The Battle of Amjhera

In the same year, Bajirao sent his brother Chimaji Appa, along with Malharrao Holkar and Udaji Pawar into the rich province of Malwa (modern Madhya Pradesh). However, the veteran Rajput Giridhar Bahadur, Mughal Subhedar, moved to oppose Chimaji along with his brother Daya Bahadur. The Mughal forces expected the Marathas to take a direct route over Tanda ghat; however, Chimaji crossed through an eastern route and surprised them at Amjhera.

In a long, fierce battle, the Bahadur brothers and their army was destroyed. Shock waves reverberated throughout the Mughal Empire, as one by one, the local lords of Malwa began accepting Maratha rule. At this very time, Peshwa Bajirao received a plea for help that would change his life!

The Battle of Jaitpur- Bundelkhand Campaign

In 1672, a young Bundela Rajput nobleman, Chhatrasal had visited Shivaji Maharaj seeking employment. Instead, Shivaji Maharaj had inspired Chhatrasal to fight the Mughals and raise his own Swarajya in Bundelkhand (part of Uttar Pradesh), and promised his help. Over 55 years, Chhatrasal created and successfully defended his kingdom. But in 1729, the old king approaching age 80 was finally captured by Mughal Subhedar Muhammad Khan Bangash. Desperately, he asked for help from the Maratha Peshwa.

Without a thought for personal benefit, Peshwa Bajirao led his armies over 500 kilometers through hilly, unfrequented paths to reach an escaped Raja Chhatrasal. Together, their forces marched through such an unknown route that Bangash didn’t even know until they were just 20 km away! Hurriedly, Bangash started defending Jaitpur Fort, and called his son Qaim Khan with an army of 30,000 more to join him.

Alliance with Bundela Rajputs

It was no use. The Marathas and Bundelas defeated Qaim Khan and besieged Jaitpur. As the summer heat increased and food ran out, the Mughal soldiers began starving so badly that they began killing and eating their horses. Soon, the soldiers abandoned Bangash, and he was forced to surrender, sign a treaty and swear an oath to never again attack Bundelkhand.

*Maharaja Chhatrasal I and his daughter, Mastani (2nd Image Source: Raja Dinkar Kelkar Museum, CC BY-SA 4.0*

Raja Chhatrasal was overjoyed! And so, amid great celebration, he declared Bajirao as his third son and gave him one-third of his kingdom as a gift. Additionally, he also asked Bajirao to marry his favorite daughter- Mastani, born of a Muslim concubine. Contrary to popular tales, the marriage was a politically arranged alliance. It gave the Bundelas a powerful protector; while to the Marathas, it gave a firm base in North India to plan campaigns against the ultimate target- Delhi!

Deep Singh’s Diplomatic Mission

The next year, Shahu Maharaj himself led an army against Sambhaji II, and forced him to surrender. Magnanimously, he allowed Sambhaji to keep his kingdom of Kolhapur and title himself Chhatrapati so long as he acknowledged Shahu’s supremacy. Soon, the two cousins became allies.

Thus by 1730, the Marathas had risen to great power, resolved major internal differences, and inflicted great defeats to the Mughals. Worried, the court of Delhi decided to send a diplomatic mission led by Rajput envoy Deep Singh of Jaipur to the Deccan, to meet the Marathas and ascertain their demands. When he visited the Nizam, their recorded conversation gives a great insight about Bajirao’s stature!

Nizam: Whom do you find worthy of trust and respect at Satara? Who commands the Raja’s confidence?
Deep Singh: Of course Bajirao! No one else at Shahu’s court can equal Bajirao in valor, integrity, diplomatic talent, or organizational capacity. He is the man who pre-eminently rules the Maratha court…his army trusts him as a superior personality.

At 30 years, Bajirao had thus already proved his capabilities throughout India. Now, he was planning his next move to make the Marathas the supreme power in the Subcontinent!

So what happened next? Find out in Part 2 on Peshwa Bajirao, coming soon!

– Ashutosh Dixit

References:

The Era of Bajirao- Dr. Uday Kulkarni
New History of the Marathas- G.S. Sardesai
Peshwa Bajirao I and the Maratha Expansion- Prof. V.G. Dighe

Posted on March 20, 2021April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 4 Comments

Extraordinary Women of the Maratha Empire- Women’s Day Special, Part 2

Rani Laxmibai, Rebel Queen, Reviver of the Maratha Empire

In Indian history, we can find thousands of examples of powerful, dynamic women leaders who shaped the destiny of this ancient land. But in the Middle and Early Modern age there were fewer examples; and even those who wielded power through their husband’s or son’s position had to navigate a minefield of social barriers. Among rulers of Central Asian and Turkish descent, this trend was even more restrictive. However, with the rise of the Marathas- a martial society in which members of all castes and classes were adept at war- and the egalitarian Sikhs, women began to wield more direct power. In Part 1 of this Women’s Day Special, we saw the stories of Rajmata Jijabai, Maharani Yesubai, Maharani Tarabai, and Peshwin Radhabai, who all played important roles in the foundation and expansion of the Maratha Empire. Continuing this narrative, we take a look at 4 more extraordinary women who played pivotal roles in history.

‘Sarsenapati’ Umabai Dabhade

Umabai was the daughter of Devrao Thoke Deshmukh of Abhone. Her marriage to Sardar Khanderao Dabhade brought her into the spotlight. Over a period from 1705 to 1716, the valiant Khanderao captured most of Gujarat from the Mughals. Proficient in warfare, Umabai managed their territory of Talegaon by herself and successfully defeated invading forces. Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath advised Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj to appoint Khanderao as Sarsenapati (Commander-in-Chief) of the Maratha Empire. In 1719, Sarsenapati Dabhade led the army to Delhi along with Peshwa Balaji and his son Bajirao; and forced the Mughals to formally accept Maratha independence.

In 1729, Khanderao passed away of illness, and Shahu Maharaj appointed his son Trimbakrao as the Commander. At this time, with a view to strengthening central power, Peshwa Bajirao asked Trimbakrao to share half of the revenue of Gujarat with the central treasury and formally bring it under central authority. However, Umabai viewed this as the Peshwa’s trick to take over their province, and advised her son to refuse. Negotiations failed; and sensing an opportunity, the Nizam of Hyderabad and Mughal officer Muhammad Bangash instigated Trimbakrao to rebel against Bajirao with their support.

The First Woman Commander-in-Chief in Indian History

This led to the Battle of Dabhoi between the Senapati and the Peshwa in 1731, during which Trimbakrao accidentally died of a stray bullet. Furious, Umabai and her deputy Gaekwad led an army to avenge him. The Chhatrapati then personally intervened to make peace between his two ministers. Umabai agreed to pay the revenue, and her younger son Yashwantrao was appointed Senapati. However, Yashwantrao was weak and addicted to opium; so Umabai herself administered Gujarat and carried out the duties of the Sarsenapati for over 20 years. She defeated the Mughals in a major battle in 1732. Hence, she has been hailed as the ‘first woman Commander-in-Chief in Indian history’.

However, she never actually paid the full agreed amount; and considering she was a widow who had lost her eldest son, Shahu Maharaj was hesitant to demand it from her. After his death, the Empire was facing financial troubles, so Peshwa Nanasaheb demanded the revenue she owed. She refused and allied with Maharani Tarabai who had seized power from her grandson the Chhatrapati. The armies of the two women attacked Pune while the Peshwa was away, but were resisted by his grandmother Radhabai. Nanasaheb returned and defeated Umabai’s army. Her deputy Damaji Gaekwad accepted the Peshwa’s terms and was made Subhedar of Gujarat, while the rebel Umabai and her family were stripped of their power and left with an empty title. In 1753, Umabai passed away, and with her ended the glory of the House of Sarsenapati Dabhade.

Subhedar ‘Devi’ Ahilyabai Holkar

Ahilyabai Holkar (1725-1795 CE) is one of the most revered figures in Indian history. Born to Mankoji Shinde, a prominent member of the Dhangar (shepherd) community, she learnt to read and write early, and was a great devotee of Shiva. When she was 8, the Subhedar of Malwa, Malharrao Holkar saw her feeding the poor in a temple. Impressed with her piety and intelligence, he wedded her to his son Khanderao. She grew up to take charge of the Holkar household; however, tragedy struck when her husband was killed in battle. Bereft of his son, Malharrao began to depend on Ahilyabai to administer and defend the province in his absence. After his death in 1765, her adolescent son Malerao became Subhedar while she effectively ruled as Regent, but even he passed away of illness in two years.

*Statue of Ahilyabai Holkar in Maheshwar Fort, her capital; Image Source*

In those times it was custom for only male heirs to succeed to the family position; however, Ahilyabai petitioned the Peshwa to appoint her as the Subhedar. Despite opposition from many, the young Peshwa Madhavrao I recognizing her abilities, declared her as Subhedar of Malwa in her own right, rather than on behalf of a male family member. This decision would change the fortunes of Malwa!

Ahilyabai established a competent, progressive administration and appointed Tukojirao Holkar, a distant relation, as head of military. While Tukojirao worked with Mahadji Shinde and Peshwa Madhavrao to recapture Delhi and North India, Ahilyabai led armies against plundering raiders with four bows and quivers of arrows fitted to her elephant’s howdah. But it was with her intelligence and compassion that she cemented her position.

The Saintly Noblewoman

Building many forts and roads she promoted trade and made Maheshwar her capital, establishing a new textile industry of the famed Maheshwari sarees. She developed Indore into a major cultural and economic center where artists and merchants flourished under her patronage. She held audience every day, listening to and addressing her subjects’ problems. Realizing that the tribals raiding her territory were lacking income; she allotted some unoccupied hilly land for them to settle down, allowed them to collect a small tax from travelers, and their raids stopped! She also contributed to the construction and maintenance of hundreds of temples across India, building temples at some of the holiest Hindu sites like Kashi, Somnath, Ayodhya, Mathura, Haridwar, Rameshwar, Dwarka, and Jagannathpuri. Famously, she rebuilt the sacred Kashi Vishwanath Shiva temple (on an adjacent site), which had been destroyed and converted into a mosque by Aurangzeb over 100 years ago!

*Kashi Vishwanath Temple, Varanasi; built by Ahilyabai Holkar*

Through her words as well as actions, she spread the message of Dharma across India. One of the few women to rule directly in pre-British India, she created a peaceful and prosperous Central India in a turbulent era of the Maratha Empire. Today, she is seen as an embodiment of female capability and even worshipped in some places as ‘Devi’ or Saint for her noble work!

*Stamp of Ahilyabai Holkar by Indian government in 1996; Image Source*

Rani Laxmibai

In 1818, the East India Company defeated the Maratha Empire in the 3rd Anglo-Maratha War. The British exiled Peshwa Bajirao II to Bithur (UP), abolished his Pune Seat, and reduced the Chhatrapati to a mere Raja of Satara. The Maratha Empire lost, and India came under British rule. As Bajirao II settled down in Bithur, he grew fond of little Manikarnika, daughter of his Brahmin clerk Moropant Tambe, and treated her as his own daughter. She learned reading, writing, as well as horseriding, swordplay, and archery with the Peshwa’s adopted son Nanasaheb II and their friend Tatya Tope. At this time, the local Sardars of the Maratha Empire had become titular Maharajas, but in reality were ruled by the British. 14-yr old Manikarnika married such a Maharaja, Gangadharrao Newalkar of Jhansi, and took the name Laxmibai.

She gave birth to a son who died in four months. The royal couple adopted a baby in 1853 and named him Damodar; but soon after, the Maharaja died. The infant became King and Laxmibai ruled as his Regent. However, the British applied the Doctrine of Lapse, which disinherited all adopted royal children and annexed Jhansi, ordering Laxmibai to vacate her palace. She famously cried out, “Meri Jhansi nahi doongi!” But by March 1854, the British, giving Rs 60000 annual pension, forced her to leave.

The Rebel Queen

*Jhansi Fort (Uttar Pradesh), part of the erstwhile Maratha Empire*

In May 1857, the Sepoy Rebellion began and soon the fire spread everywhere. The rebels seized Jhansi Fort, massacred all Englishmen, and took a hefty ransom from Laxmibai to leave. With no British officers left, Laxmibai reassumed the government and fought off neighboring kingdoms trying to take advantage of the chaos. She repeatedly asked the British for reinforcements but none arrived; so she set up a foundry to cast cannons, and raised an army of Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, men and women from all castes. Till January 1858, Jhansi was at peace under its Queen.

Then the British arrived and demanded surrender. Laxmibai refused, and the Siege of Jhansi began. She sent letters to Peshwa Nanasaheb II, Tatya Tope, and Nawab Ali Bahadur II (great-grandson of Bajirao I). Tatya Tope arrived with an army to rescue her, but a traitor let the British inside the fort. That night, Laxmibai jumped from the walls with Damodar at her back and joined Tatya; while her female lieutenant Jhalkaribai distracted the British in disguise. The rebels made their way to Gwalior, declared Nanasaheb II as Peshwa of a revived Maratha Empire, and swore to regain Swarajya.

*Statue of Rani Laxmibai with Damodar Rao on horseback, Pune*

However, against her advice the rebel leaders separated, and the British seized the opportunity to attack Gwalior. On 17 June, the British broke through Laxmibai’s army, slaughtering 8000 people. Laxmibai fought till the very end till, wounded and exhausted, she passed away in glory. Even the British couldn’t help but admire her, with Colonel Rose calling her ‘the most dangerous of all Indian leaders’. Rani Laxmibai became a symbol- of nationalism, independence, and the power and courage of women; inspiring all later freedom fighters. She will forever be immortalized as one of India’s greatest heroes, subject of statues, literature… and dreams.

*Stamp of Rani Laxmibai issued by Indian government in 1957, to celebrate centenary of the 1857 Rebellion; Image Source*

Jhalkaribai

She had no title, no position or hereditary right. Neither was she a relative of anyone important. She came from a humble north Indian Dalit family, but achieved renown in Indian and Maratha history by her courage and sacrifice. She was Jhalkaribai.

Born to Sadoba Singh and Jamunadevi of the Kori community in Bhojla near Jhansi, Jhalkaribai received no formal education. However, she learned horseback riding, as well as handling weapon early on. She displayed great courage in childhood, killing a leopard with an axe and fighting off robbers in her village. She was married to Puran Singh, a great wrestler and soldier from Jhansi and during a festival, caught the eye of Rani Laxmibai, who observed how similar they looked. Finding out more about Jhalkaribai’s bravery, she inducted her into the women’s wing of her army. Soon, the Brahmin queen and the Dalit warrior lady struck up a friendship, and Puran Singh and Jhalkaribai became Laxmibai’s advisors.

*The storming of Jhansi Fort, by Edward Gilliat*

In 1858, the British laid siege to Jhansi Fort. Laxmibai’s army fought a bloody battle for months, with Puran Singh as an infantry lieutenant and Jhalkaribai commanding cannons. However, a traitor let the British into the fort, and a massacre started. Laxmibai prepared to escape the fort so she could continue the rebellion; but Jhalkaribai knew it was difficult unless she distracted the British. Quickly, she dressed in Laxmibai’s clothes and battlegear; and led a contingent out in disguise. Seeing the Queen’s flag, the British focused on capturing Jhalkaribai, and the real Queen escaped!

Jhalkaribai fought bravely, but eventually had to sue for peace. Even then, acting as Laxmibai, she tried to keep the British engaged in peace talks for the next day, until a defected Jhansi soldier exposed her identity. The British were dumbfounded and awestruck by her courage. Her end is unclear; however, most sources say the British executed her there and then.

*Stamp of Jhalkaribai issued by Indian Government in 2001*; Image Source

Today, she is celebrated as a symbol of empowerment- both for women as well as the oppressed castes-and lives on through numerous statues and stories, as well as a stamp. She was no queen, but remains a ruler of hearts in her native region.

Endnote

These were but a few examples of the intelligence, courage, strength, and sacrifice inherent to women. Without them, history itself is incomplete. If the purpose of learning history is to inspire, it is essential that we celebrate our historical heroines as much as our heroes; and continue on the path of equality and empowerment.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on March 8, 2021April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 4 Comments

Extraordinary Women of the Maratha Empire: Women’s Day Special, Part 1

History has often been told as the story of men. But as those who have delved deep into it will know- history is equally the story of women- powerful, warlike, ambitious, crafty or honorable- women who have shaped the destinies of empires and nations! Just a look at Indian history will reveal thousands of formidable women who have achieved great renown- as leaders, warriors, administrators, influencers, as well as mothers and wives.

The Maratha Empire, which arose in 17^th century western India, and governed most of the Subcontinent in the 18^th century, also gave rise to several extraordinary women. This International Women’s Day, let’s look at some of those who played a key role in Maratha history. These are but a few among many, presented chronologically to properly show their achievements in the context of history. Shall we begin?

Rajmata Jijabai

Rajmata Jijabai (1598 – 1674 CE), also called Jijamata or Jijau, was the mother of the Founder of the Maratha Empire, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. As the chief guiding light of his life and the matriarch of the House of the Bhonsales, she played the greatest role in inspiring him to create the ‘Swarajya’.

In those days, the Deccan was divided between the Sultans- Adil Shah, Nizam Shah, and Qutub Shah, with the Mughal Emperor repeatedly invading from the north. Constantly warring against each other, these rulers perpetrated atrocities upon the common people, destroying temples and dishonoring women while the feudal lords fought for them without any thought of independence. With her innate intelligence, Jijabai, married to the mighty Shahaji Raje Bhonsale, realized that the people needed to be set free from their shackles. She encouraged Shahaji to create his own independent kingdom; however, his attempts resulted in failure due to the shifting loyalties of the Maratha Sardars.

The Woman who gave Birth to the Maratha Empire

Statue of Rajmata Jijabai with the boy-king Shivaji Raje, Founder of the Maratha Empire — *Statue of Rajmata Jijabai with the boy-king Shivaji Raje at his birthplace Shivneri*

Her vision later bore fruit through her son, Shivaji. Born in 1630, he grew up with her as his teacher, philosopher, and guiding light. She raised him lovingly yet firmly, imparting ancient wisdom through the stories of Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Bhagwad Gita. She ensured his education in administration, warfare, and politics inculcating in him the values of self-respect, leadership, unity and compassion.

When Shivaji was 6, Shahaji Raje sent him and Jijabai to his fiefdom in Pune to govern it in his name. Upon reaching Pune, Jijabai found it to be utterly ruined due to the continuous wars. With advice from Shahaji’s deputy Dadoji Konddev, she took up the task of rehabilitating Pune, established the temple of Kasba Ganapati, and reinvigorated trade and farming. She commissioned the construction of the Lal Mahal as her residence, and ensured good governance and military security in the region. Inspiring Shivaji with the vision of Swarajya or ‘self-rule’, she wholeheartedly supported his dreams and ambitions. When his wife died leaving behind 2-year old Sambhaji, Jijabai took up the duty of raising him as well. Thus, she was responsible for raising not one, but two Emperors of the Marathas!

*Rajmata Jijabai with Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, sculpture*

In 1674, she passed away after Shivaji was formally coronated as the ‘Chhatrapati’ of the Maratha Empire. In her lifetime, she fulfilled the dream of Swarajya through her son, rescuing millions of people from slavery and misery. She remains a celebrated and revered icon throughout Maharashtra even to this day!

*Indian postage stamp commemorating Rajmata Jijabai*

Maharani Yesubai

Maharani Yesubai was the wife of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, the 2^nd Emperor of the Marathas. Married at a young age, with her intelligence and steady resilience she soon found favor with her father-in-law Shivaji Maharaj, who considered her a good influence on his son. During her husband’s reign (1681-1689) the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb descended upon the fledgling Maratha Empire with an army of over 6 lakhs, aiming to conquer all of South India. As his wife and confidante, Yesubai counseled Chhatrapati Sambhaji in his administration as well as military plans. Once, Sambhaji Maharaj was devastated after finding out that he had mistakenly put his Royal Secretary or Chitnis, Balaji Awji to death due to a wrong suspicion of treachery. Yesubai advised him to right this wrong by giving the position to Balaji’s son Khando Ballal, who later ended up saving Sambhaji’s life!

*Statue of Yesubai Bhonsale, Maharani of the Maratha Empire*

In 1689, Sambhaji Maharaj was captured and executed by Aurangzeb. When the capital Raigad was besieged, Yesubai took charge even while dealing with her own grief and loss. Realizing that the Kingdom needed a strong leader at this critical juncture, she crowned her husband’s half-brother Rajaram as Chhatrapati instead of her own son who was only 7 years old. She sent Rajaram away to keep him safe, and defended Raigad till it fell. From there, her story got even worse.

Prisoner of the Mughals

For 30 years, from 1689 to 1719, she remained a prisoner of the Mughals. With barely any money and resources, she had to take care of all the family members, officers and servants who had been captured with her. Despite this, she acted with great patience and fortitude. Even though she could not teach her son Shahu to fight in Mughal captivity, she ensured that he became a learned, wise young man. How the former Queen must have lived, surrounded by enemies in a rough, hard, camp?

However, her story does have a happy ending. Her son, who had been released in 1708 and become Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj, sent his Prime Minister, Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath in 1719 to negotiate her release. By now, the Marathas were on the rise, and after 30 years in captivity, Yesubai returned to Maharashtra and reunited with her son. She lived for 11 years more, happy to see her son secure as Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire. Her memory remains in history as a shining example of sacrifice and courage.

*Mural of the Return of Maharani Yesubai and a gratefully kneeling Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj*; Image Source

Maharani Tarabai

Maharani Tarabai (1675-1761) was the wife of Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj, 3^rd Emperor of the Marathas. Being the daughter of Sarsenapati (Commander-in-Chief) Hambirrao Mohite, she learned horse-riding, swordplay, and other skills of warfare at an early age. After Rajaram became the Emperor in 1689, Tarabai supported him in every situation, including the perilous journey from Mughal-occupied Maharashtra to Jinjee, Tamil Nadu; and assisted him in the war, working with his Council of Ministers. In 1700, Rajaram Maharaj passed away at Sinhagad, leaving behind two adolescent sons. Shahu, the true heir to the throne, was still in Mughal captivity. Who would rule the kingdom at this crucial juncture?

It was Tarabai who stepped up, seating her adolescent son Shivaji II on the throne and ruling in his name. Coordinating with the ministers, she personally led attacks and recaptured Maratha fortresses. For 7 years, she successfully continued the War, gaining fame as a warrior-general and an administrator. In 1707, Emperor Aurangzeb died, the Mughals returned north, and Tarabai was celebrated for having won the 27-year long Maratha War of Independence.

After the War

Tarabai was not only valiant, but also shrewd. Upon taking control of the kingdom, she had imprisoned Rajaram’s other wife Rajasbai and her son Sambhaji II. In 1708, when Shahu returned, she denounced him as an impostor and refused to hand over the kingdom. When most of the Sardars allied with him, she retreated to Kolhapur and established her son’s separate kingdom. Shahu accepted this demarcation and crowned himself at Satara. But when she repeatedly failed to make peace, her administrator Ramchandra Pant Amatya released Rajasbai, who seated her son Sambhaji II on the throne and imprisoned Tarabai! Thus, the Queen received a taste of her own medicine.

In 1731, Chhatrapati Shahu obtained her release from prison, and respectfully brought her to Satara. Since he had no sons, he adopted Tarabai’s grandson Rajaram II as his successor, thus making her the founder of the Kolhapur kingdom as well as a matriarch of the Satara kingdom! In 1752, she imprisoned her grandson and conspired to remove Peshwa Nanasaheb who had been appointed for life by Shahu himself. Upon being defeated, she resigned herself to a nominal role in her grandson’s administration, and passed away in 1761. Today, she is remembered as a symbol of female power for her bravery, resistance to the Mughals and founding her own kingdom.

*Statue of Tarabai Bhonsale, Maharani of the Maratha Empire*

Peshwin Radhabai

Radhabai Bhat or Radhabai Peshwa was the wife of Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, and the mother of Peshwa Bajirao I and Chimaji Appa. During her life of over 70 years, she laid the foundation of the Peshwa power and lived to see the Marathas become the supreme power in the Subcontinent.

*Radhabai Peshwa, wife, mother, and grandmother of the Peshwas of the Maratha Empire*

As the wife of Balaji Vishwanath Bhat, a lieutenant and accountant under Sarsenapati Dhanaji Jadhav, Radhabai shared in all his hardships in Mughal-occupied Maharashtra. Their fortunes turned in 1707 when Balaji succeeded in helping Shahu become Chhatrapati at Satara. Even after this, she was once imprisoned along with her entire family by a rebel Sardar, but she showed great fortitude and they were soon rescued by Shahu’s army. Balaji was appointed Prime Minister in 1713, and Radhabai became the matriarch of the new Peshwa family. Seasoned in politics, she ably counseled her husband in taking Maratha power up to Delhi. She encouraged her sons to take part in battles from an early age, ensuring they learnt literature and accounts as well as warfare, politics and administration. It was she who instilled in them the dream of fulfilling Chhatrapati Shivaji’s vision of Hindavi Swarajya!

Mother of ‘The Great Peshwa’

In 1720, upon Balaji’s passing, her elder son Bajirao was appointed Peshwa, and he expanded the Maratha Empire in all directions. Radhabai turned Pune into a great city and paid attention to the people’s welfare as seen when, during a drought, she ordered the wealthy citizens to stop using water in their gardens and instead give it to the poor.

In 1729, Bajirao married Mastanibai, an illegitimate Muslim daughter of King Chhatrasal of Bundelkhand. This was a political alliance to secure his power in Bundelkhand in the north from where he could target Delhi. However, the orthodox section of Brahmins in Pune were outraged and refused to conduct religious ceremonies for the Peshwas. Radhabai brought them in line by threatening to invite priests from Varanasi. While she accepted Mastani as a political necessity and even helped her during her pregnancy, she ensured that her presence caused minimal damage to the Peshwa reputation. In 1735 she made a long pilgrimage to North India, and used the opportunity to cement Bajirao’s new alliances with the Rajputs, Jats, Bundelas and some Muslim Nawabs. This helped Bajirao to soundly defeat the Mughals in the Battle of Delhi in 1737!

In 1752 when Maharani Tarabai and Umbabai Dabhade conspired against her grandson Nanasaheb Peshwa and attacked Pune, it was Radhabai who defended it. When she passed away in 1753, the Marathas had just signed the Ahmadiyya Treaty, by which they became the protectors of the Mughals, and in effect the rulers of India. Though largely forgotten in history, Peshwin Radhabai must be credited with playing a key role in establishing and securing Maratha supremacy!

To Be Continued…

Well, these are just some of the great heroines and inspiring women leaders of the Maratha Empire. Hope you enjoyed their stories! Coming up in Part 2: the Queen who became a Saint, the greatest Rebel Queen in Indian history, and more! Stay tuned…

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on August 15, 2020April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 4 Comments

The Chhatrapati and the Peshwa, Part 2- Balaji Vishwanath secures the Swarajya

Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath Statue, Shriwardhan; Source: Amit20081980 / CC BY-SA

In January 1708, Shahu Maharaj was crowned Chhatrapati at Satara. This moment signaled a new page in Indian history, but that wasn’t apparent at the time. Rather, Shahu had to face so many threats from so many sides in the decade that followed, that people questioned whether the Marathas would even survive politically. And yet, survive they did, thanks to another great man who arose from humble origins- Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath Bhat.

Balaji Vishwanath Bhat- Origins

Balaji Vishwanath Bhat was born in 1660 in the coastal town of Shrivardhan. The area was, at the time, controlled by the Siddis of Janjira. Fleeing their persecution, Balaji migrated to the Maratha heartland, accompanied by his close friend Balaji Bhanu and his 2 brothers.

Coming to Purandar, he became acquainted with the Purandare family, and served as an accountant for Dhanaji Jadhav. With his brilliant mind and penchant for diplomacy, Balaji quickly became a trusted aide to the administration. In a letter by Ramchandra Pant Amatya to Chhatrapati Rajaram (in 1693), he recalls having sent Balaji Vishwanath to search for Sambhaji Maharaj after his capture by the Mughals. During Rajaram’s reign, Balaji was a revenue-collecting official in Chiplun, and later Pune. Since all of Maharashtra had come under Mughal occupation at the time, collecting revenue and sending it safely to the ministers was difficult. However, Balaji excelled in his duties and was made the Sarsubhedar of Pune by 1700. During this time, he had also provided resources and ensured Shahu’s welfare in the Mughal camps, most probably through the help of Mughal Princess Zeenat un-Nissa.

When Shahu returned in 1707, Balaji played a huge part in convincing his master Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav and other leaders to support Shahu. In recognition of this, Shahu appointed Balaji as ‘Senakarte’ or the Head of Army Logistics. His job was to procure funds for the armies. Balaji advised young Shahu to recreate the stable administration system of Shivaji Maharaj which had completely fallen apart. Key to this was reinstating the Pradhan Mandal. Hence, on the recommendation of the Senapati and Khando Ballal Chitnis, Shahu appointed Bahiro Pant Pingale, youngest son of the first Peshwa Moro Pant, as the new Peshwa (Prime Minister). He also released Parshuram Pant ‘Pratinidhi’ after he swore loyalty to Shahu. Balaji also advised on the appointments of the other ministers.

Challenges to the Maratha Kingdom

Despite Shahu’s coronation and the new administrative appointments, their troubles were far from over. Shahu knew his aunt Tarabai would not give up her claims easily. Wisely, he extended her an olive branch, and agreed to divide the Kingdom between them, avoiding further conflict. Tarabai spurned his offer. She released Ramchandra Pant Amatya and asked him to take charge of her son’s administration. The veteran advised her to make peace, but she denounced Shahu as a Mughal puppet.

Again, Shahu led an army to Panhala, but Tarabai escaped to Rangna. When Shahu decided to pursue her, Dhanaji reminded him of everything Tarabai had accomplished and sacrificed for the Maratha cause. So, Shahu declared the territory of Panhala and surrounding areas as Tarabai’s independent domain, and retreated. He decided to focus on improving administration and strengthening his position. Tarabai established her capital at Kolhapur, forever dividing the Maratha Kingdom into two.

*Maharani Tarabai statue in Kolhapur; Image Source*

The New Senapati

Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav died soon after. Immediately, Shahu’s position weakened, as many of the sardars had supported him because of Dhanaji. With the Commander gone, how long would Shahu last?

Shahu promoted Dhanaji’s son Chandrasen as the new Senapati, but this proved problematic. Chandrasen had always resented the trust that Balaji Vishwanath had shared with his father, and privately believed in Tarabai’s cause. Over the next two years, his rivalry with Balaji only increased as Balaji grew closer to Shahu. Hence, rather than try to consolidate his king’s position, Chandrasen indulged in conspiracy with Tarabai.

The Rebellious Sardars

During the War of Independence, all the Maratha sardars had operated independently, with the only common bond being their fight against the Mughals. Rajaram Maharaj and his Council had encouraged them to raise their own armies and conquer territories back from the Mughals, by declaring that the territory they conquered would remain under their rule. Although against the policies established by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, this yielded good results during the War. However, now that there was a central governing authority back in place, the sardars were reluctant to give up their autonomy. Hence, many of them refused to pay the taxes owed to Shahu.

Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj and Peshwa Bahiro Pant Pingale then personally led missions to collect the taxes and keep the economy afloat. With his decades of experience in revenue collection, Balaji’s advice became indispensable. Soon Balaji became Shahu’s friend, philosopher, and guide; and his success in battlefield logistics and revenue administration ensured his meteoric rise to power.

Relations with the Mughals

Though the Mughals freed Shahu, they continued to keep his mother and wife imprisoned. Hence, Shahu had no choice but to submit to them. In Delhi, Prince Muazzam had killed his brother Azam and crowned himself as Bahadur Shah. He then came to Hyderabad to kill his last remaining brother Kam Baksh. At this time, Shahu sent his envoys to Bahadur Shah, professing his loyalty to the Mughals. In return, he asked the Emperor to free his family, and declare him the rightful successor to Shivaji rather than his cousin Shivaji II. This would allow Shahu Maharaj the important rights of collecting the Chauth (one-fourth of total revenue) that his grandfather had exercised over most of the Deccan.

However, when his envoys reached the Mughal camp, they found Tarabai’s envoys already there! The wily old queen, while denouncing Shahu as a Mughal puppet, was herself trying to gain favor with them.

Bahadur Shah I diplomatically declared that this was an internal issue that the Marathas must resolve among themselves. This, of course, ensured that the Marathas remained divided!

Balaji Vishwanath becomes Peshwa

In 1711, tensions peaked between Chandrasen and Balaji. Using a hunting accident as an excuse, Chandrasen attacked Balaji with 3000 men. Not having enough men to fight, Balaji sought refuge at Purandar. The great sardars Pilaji Jadhavrao and Yamaji Dhumal protected his family- wife Radhabai, two daughters, and two sons- Bajirao and Chimaji. Shahu Maharaj sent a great army and defeated Chandrasen, who escaped and joined Tarabai. This was also 11-year old Bajirao’s first battle.

In 1713, an even greater calamity struck. Kanhoji Angre, the great Sarkhel or Admiral of the Maratha Navy, declared his support for Tarabai. He had so far not acted for either side, preferring to administer the coast independently, but now he began capturing Shahu’s forts. Bahiro Pant Peshwa led an army, but proved no match for the experienced admiral. Kanhoji imprisoned him at Kolaba Fort, and marched toward Satara.

At Shahu’s court, none of the other Pradhans were ready to deal with Kanhoji. In desperation, Shahu turned to his trusted advisor Balaji; however, Balaji was a ‘Senakarte’ and not a full Cabinet Minister. Kanhoji would not take him seriously, so Balaji pragmatically advised Shahu to appoint him an interim Peshwa. Thus on 13 November 1713, Balaji Vishwanath was appointed the 5^th Peshwa of the Swarajya. Balaji led successful countermoves against Kanhoji, such that Kanhoji finally agreed to discuss terms.

Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath; Source: By Amit20081980 - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0 — *Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath; Source: By Amit20081980 – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0*

Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath stabilizes the Swarajya

In a historic meeting at Lohagad, Kanhoji and Balaji connected over their shared ‘Konkani’ heritage. Balaji appealed to the old man’s patriotism, as a bakhar narrates-

Your father Tukaji served Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. Now Shahu Maharaj is the senior, the heir to the throne…Instead, you are serving the younger brother and have turned your face away from Chhatrapati Shahu. Is it the dharma of a servant to imprison the Pradhan or take the master’s forts?”

Eventually, in return for near-autonomy over the Konkan, Kanhoji agreed to serve Shahu Maharaj, released Bahiro Pant, and returned the captured forts. Shahu gave him a place in his Council, and agreed to provide troops against the Portuguese and Siddis. Shahu then made Balaji’s appointment permanent.

Balaji set out to stabilize the kingdom. Meeting all the important Sardars, he signed treaties similar to the one with Kanhoji. The Sardars got the right to govern their territories without interference, in return for supporting Shahu Maharaj with troops and taxes. Those that refused were defeated and captured. Peace was slowly restored. Balaji also designed a new, robust revenue collection system that slowly revitalized the economy and brought prosperity.

All that remained to be dealt with was Tarabai.

Conspiracy in Kolhapur

The solution was not difficult. In 1700, when Tarabai crowned her son Shivaji II after Rajaram’s death, she had imprisoned Rajaram’s other wife Rajasbai and her son Sambhaji II. After all, if Tarabai could seat her son on the throne that Rajaram had always declared would go to his nephew Shahu, there was nothing stopping Rajasbai from doing the same!

Thus, in 1714, after finding Tarabai and her son unwilling to establish peace, their administrator Ramchandra Pant released Rajasbai and her son from prison. Rajasbai took over the throne of Kolhapur and imprisoned Tarabai and her son at Panhala. Rajasbai sent a letter to Shahu, accepting the demarcation of territories, and seeking his blessings. Shahu Maharaj promised her his protection, and peace was established in the Swarajya.

Alliance with the Sayyads

Meanwhile, the death of Bahadur Shah in 1712 marked the death of the last competent Mughal Emperor. His successor Jahandar Shah was addicted to wine and opium, and preferred cavorting with his many mistresses than ruling. He was deposed by his nephew Farrukh Siyar, who came into power only with the support of two brothers- the kingmakers Sayyad Abdullah and Sayyad Hussein Ali. These brothers now held the true power in Delhi. Abdullah became the Wazir, and Hussein Ali came to the Deccan as the new Viceroy in 1715.

Hussein Ali and the Marathas clashed for over two years without any conclusion. At the same time, Farrukh Siyar was trying to get rid of the controlling Sayyad brothers, who knew it. Conspiracies became commonplace.

In 1718, the Sayyad brothers realized that Farrukh Siyar was becoming a threat to their power. Hence, Hussein Ali approached Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath; they drafted a treaty and sent it to the Emperor. Farrukh Siyar denied all the terms. Then the Marathas and Sayyads sprung their trap.

They declared that one of Aurangzeb’s grandsons had been in Maratha custody since Aurangzeb’s death, and that they would hand him over to the Mughals in return for their demands. In truth, the grandson had died long ago; but the Marathas found an impostor to act the role. They furnished him with all the grandeur befitting a Mughal prince. Farrukh Siyar knew this ‘prince’ was a threat to his throne! He demanded the Marathas hand him over.

The Marathas march to Delhi

*The Zari Patka in Delhi: Talk by D. Uday Kulkarni on Maratha Influence in 18th century India*

In 1718, the Marathas set out with an army of 50,000, led by Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, new Senapati Khanderao Dabhade, Balaji Bhanu, Pilaji Jadhavrao, and 18-year old Bajirao. They were joined by Hussein Ali with an equally formidable force. On 16 February, this mighty army entered Delhi. The first day went by in negotiations.

The next day, heavy skirmishes occurred in the Delhi streets between the Emperor’s men and Hussein Ali’s. The Marathas were ambushed, and blood flowed freely. Balaji Bhanu was murdered; however, Bajirao and his contingent successfully guarded one of the gates of the Red Fort. Angry, Hussein Ali dragged out Farrukh Siyar hiding in his harem, and blinded him!

In his place, the Sayyads installed a new puppet, Rafi ud-Darjat, who meekly signed the treaty with the following terms:

Formal recognition by the Mughals of the independent Swarajya founded by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj
Formal recognition of Shahu as the supreme ruler and Chhatrapati of the Marathas
Release of all imprisoned Marathas including Shahu’s mother, wife, and half-brother
The rights to collect the Chauthai (25% of total revenue) in all 6 provinces of the Deccan- Aurangabad, Khandesh, Bidar, Varhad, Bijapur and Telangana, to the Maratha Government
The rights to collect the Sardeshmukhi (10% of total revenue) in all 6 provinces of the Deccan, personally to the Chhatrapati

In return, the Marathas would:

Recognize the Mughal Emperor’s nominal authority
Keep an army to maintain peace in the Deccan
Keep an additional 15,000 troops for the protection of the Mughal throne

As historian G.S. Sardesai states, ‘when a sovereign seeks protection from a vassal, it means that in actual practice the comparative strength of the two parties is reversed’. Thus, while in name, the Marathas acknowledged Mughal authority outside their Swarajya, in reality they had become protectors of the Mughals!

Swarajya becomes Saamrajya

Reunited with his family, a weary Shahu approaching age 40 desired some peace and quiet. He asked Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath to handle the everyday responsibilities in his name, and shift his own court to Pune, which was being raided by miscreants. Accordingly, Balaji moved to Pune and began handling the administration from there, with regular reports sent to Satara. He spent the next few months stabilizing the new administration and passed away in April 1720. His accomplishments earned him the title ‘Second Founder of the Maratha State’!

*Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj and his Peshwa; Source: Amit20081980~commonswiki / CC BY-SA 4.0*

Shahu Maharaj appointed his son Bajirao as his next Peshwa. During Bajirao’s illustrious career, the Peshwa or Prime Minister became the real power centre of the Marathas, while still serving the Chhatrapati as the master. Since Shahu had no sons, he adopted his nephew Rajaram II (son of Shivaji II) as his titular successor, and officially transferred the authority of ruling the now vast empire to the Bhat Peshwa family. Under the Chhatrapatis and the Peshwas, the Marathas ruled most of the subcontinent for 70 years, constituting a glorious albeit forgotten chapter in Indian history.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on August 8, 2020April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 8 Comments

The Chhatrapati and the Peshwa, Part 1- The Rise of Shahu Maharaj

Frequently, when discussing Indian history, people ask me about the Chhatrapatis and the Peshwas and their exact role in Maratha history. It is sad that these things have not been clearly emphasized in school textbooks, but the politics of British and even independent India has succeeded in obscuring them needlessly. Hence, when taking the story of the Marathas forward after the Maratha War of Independence, it is necessary to clarify this oft-questioned point.

The Chhatrapati and the Peshwa- Meaning and Origins

*Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Founder of the Maratha Empire*

In 1674, when Shivaji Maharaj was formally crowned, the title ‘Chhatrapati’ was chosen for his ascension. The word comes from the Sanskrit ‘Chhatra’ meaning umbrella or parasol, or figuratively, roof; and ‘pati’ meaning ‘Lord’. Thus, Chhatrapati literally translates to ‘Lord of the Parasol’; figuratively, it signifies a sovereign holding the roof of protection over other rulers. In English, it would be equivalent to ‘Emperor’ or ‘Lord Paramount’. Practically, it signified that Shivaji Maharaj was not a mere ‘Raja’ or ‘Maharaja’ serving under some Sultan; but rather, a fully independent sovereign ruler. His sons and descendants continued to inherit the title till after Indian independence.

The term ‘Peshwa’, on the other hand, was of Persian origin. Literally, it means ‘the First’ or ‘the Foremost’; figuratively it translates to ‘Prime Minister’. This title has an interesting history behind it. In 1642, when a young Shivaji visited his father Shahaji Maharaj in Karnataka, Shahaji appointed a group of experienced, loyal ministers to aid and advise his son in governing Pune and surrounding areas. Among these, Shamraj Pant Rozekar was appointed as the ‘Peshwa’. His duty was to oversee the administration of the province and act as the chief among ministers.

Over time, the crucial position of Peshwa came to rest with Moreshwar ‘Moro Pant’ Pingle, an enterprising leader who had joined the Maratha Revolution early on. Moro Pant constructed the Pratapgad fort, and took part in the Battle against Afzal Khan. He led several successful military missions in Nashik and Baglan, with the most famous being the great Battle of Salher-Mulher. Thus in 1674, Moro Pant Pingle became the first ‘Peshwa’ of the Swarajya. Shivaji Maharaj changed the title to Sanskrit as ‘Mukhya Pradhan’. However, the original title remained in use throughout Maratha history.

Peshwa- Role and Functions

In the ‘Kanoon Zabita’ (Book of Civil Law) compiled in 1674, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj defines the role and functions of the Peshwa:

The Mukhya Pradhan should look after all activities involved in governing the kingdom. He should bear the official Stamp of the State and seal the royal letters. When required, he should lead the armies of the kingdom and fight on the battlefield. Once a new province is conquered, it is the Mukhya Pradhan’s duty to ensure its security, and set its administrative affairs in order. He should have the confidence of the noblemen as well as the military, and work in consultation with them as a true leader.

The Peshwa during the Maratha War of Independence

All members of the Pradhan Mandal were appointed based on merit and experience, and the positions were not hereditary. However, in 1680, Moro Pant Pingle passed away of illness and age. Though he had unwillingly supported Queen Soyarabai and the Sacheev Annaji Datto in their power struggle against Prince Sambhaji; he had repented and sought forgiveness after the latter emerged victorious. Recognizing him as a great pillar of the Swarajya since its inception, Sambhaji had forgiven Moro Pant and restored his title and position. In recognition of his services, newly-crowned Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj also appointed his eldest son Nilkanth ‘Nilo Pant’ as his next Peshwa.

Nilo Pant served his King to the best of his abilities; however, he was at the time the least experienced member of the Council. Hence, in the years to come, stalwarts like Ramchandra Pant ‘Amatya’, ‘Shankaraji Pant ‘Sacheev’ and the Senapatis, Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav played more important roles. After Sambhaji’s death, Nilo Pant helped Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj escape to Jinjee fort. Post that, however, his role seems to have been taken over by Ramchandra Pant Amatya in Maharashtra, and Prahlad Pant, appointed in the newly formed role of ‘Pratinidhi’ at Jinjee. Till 1707, the above functionaries led the war against Aurangzeb, first under Rajaram Maharaj and then under his wife Maharani Tarabai. The Peshwa seems to have receded into the background, and conflicting records have been found of his fate.

Thus things progressed till 1707. But everything changed with the rise of Shahu Maharaj; and this is where we now pick up the story.

Shahu Maharaj- Early Years

Shahuji Bhonsale, son of Sambhaji Maharaj, spent 18 years of his life in Mughal captivity along with his mother Yesubai. The captured Marathas lived in fear of Aurangzeb’s displeasure, but the wily Emperor had a long-term plan. He wanted to use Shahu against his uncle Rajaram, and held him and his family as political prisoners. But even in these dark times, Shahu found a protector.

*Supposed posthumous painting based on Zeenat un-Nissa*

Zeenat un-Nissa, Aurangzeb’s favorite daughter, grew fond of little Shahu. An unmarried, pious lady, she began to think of Shahu as a son, and became his guardian angel. Not only did she help Yesubai ensure the safety of her people, she also facilitated Shahu’s education. Shahu grew fluent in Marathi, Sanskrit, and Farsi, and became well-versed in the history of both the Marathas and the Mughals. Having spent his formative years surrounded by violence, Shahu developed a wise, peaceful disposition that disliked conflict.

Once, in a fit of paranoia, Aurangzeb tried to convert Shahu to Islam, even issuing a royal firman. Once again, it was Zeenat un-Nissa who pleaded with Aurangzeb to change his mind. When he argued that he could not take back an issued firman, two sons of Shivaji’s late Commander Prataprao Gujar agreed to convert in Shahu’s stead. And so, Shahu was able to remain a Hindu.

In time, Aurangzeb himself grew somewhat fond of the quiet, intelligent and philosophical young man. He even arranged his marriage with the daughters of two Maratha sardars working for the Mughals, and presented him three swords as a gift- one that had belonged to Shivaji Maharaj, one that had belonged to Afzal Khan, and one belonging to the Emperor himself.

Death of a Tyrant

In the April of 1707, Aurangzeb Alamgir lay on his deathbed in Aurangabad. At his bedside were his most trusted advisors Nizam ul-Mulk and Zulfiqar Khan, his son Prince Azam, daughter Zeenat un-Nissa, and favorite prisoner, Shahu. The 89-year old tyrant, ruler of almost the entire Indian Subcontinent knew that his sons would never be able to continue the legacy of the House of Timur and Babar.

According to many accounts, Aurangzeb called Shahu to his side. He made Shahu swear that as long as he lived he would not let the House of Timur be destroyed, to which Shahu complied.

Then the Emperor died, and all hell broke loose.

His sons Muazzam, Azam, and Kam Baksh declared war against each other for the Mughal Throne, and Azam began to march northward to seize it. But what of Maharashtra? The Marathas had fought Aurangzeb for 27 years, and now they would take the opportunity to increase their strength. Azam knew he couldn’t allow them to consolidate. And so, he decided to initiate Aurangzeb’s long-term plan. He released Shahu!

Shahu Maharaj vs Maharani Tarabai

Long in the making, this was a masterstroke. The diminished Maratha Kingdom was then nominally ruled by Shahu’s teenaged cousin Shivaji II. However, it was Shahu’s aunt Maharani Tarabai who wielded the real power. The great warrior queen had spent the last seven years reclaiming the Swarajya from the Mughals, and had grown used to ruling. Would she simply hand over the throne?

Shahu left the Mughal camp with great fanfare, as befit a prince returning home. He wrote to Tarabai, declaring that he had been released and was coming to the capital Satara to meet her.

Tarabai called for her council of ministers- Ramchandra Pant Amatya (Finance Minister), Shankaraji Pant Sacheev (State Secretary), Parshuram Pant Pratinidhi (Viceroy), Khando Ballal Chitnis (Royal Secretary), and Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav (Commander-in-Chief). “Who is this young man?” She asked them. “Are we even sure that this is the real Shahu, son of Sambhaji? Or is he some impostor, coming from the Mughals to destroy us?” She refused to accept Shahu as the real heir, and the council sent envoys to find the truth.

By this time, Shahu had been joined by some veteran Maratha generals- Nemaji Shinde, Parsoji Bhonsle, Chimnaji Damodar Moghe, and Ambaji Pant Purandare. His armies increasing, Shahu marched south. Despite his claim to the throne, he knew quite well why the Mughals had released him. So, he desired to avoid war within the Maratha Kingdom and attempt a peaceful resolution. However, at the village of Parad, the local Patil loyal to Tarabai opposed him. In the brief battle that ensued, the Patil died. His grieving wife brought the Patil’s little son to Shahu, and demanded to know who would take care of him. Tender-hearted Shahu adopted him as a son, and named him Fateh Sinh Bhonsale.

The Maratha Civil War

The Council of Ministers ascertained that the young man was indeed the son of Sambhaji Maharaj. It was one of Dhanaji’s trusted aides, Balaji Vishwanath Bhat, who confirmed it. Balaji had met Shahu Maharaj when negotiating with the Mughals as the Sarsubhedar of Pune. Privately, Balaji also urged Dhanaji to join Shahu, as he was the rightful heir to the Maratha Throne. Ramchandra Pant Amatya wrote a congratulatory letter to Shahu and wished him success. Furious, Tarabai imprisoned him.

Her first ploy having failed, Tarabai changed her tack. Now, she declared that even if Shahu was indeed Sambhaji’s son, he had no right to her son’s throne!

In a letter, she wrote to her sardars, “The kingdom that the Thorle Maharaj (Shivaji) founded with great personal effort was lost by Sambhaji kaka along with his life. Then, the late swami (Rajaram) by his own courage created a new kingdom and defended it from the Mughals… Therefore, Shahu has nothing to do with this kingdom.”

Despite this, she knew her argument was weak, and that the loyalty of the noblemen was wavering. Hence, she asked the Council of Ministers to swear the ‘doodh bhaat’ (milk and rice) sacred oath of loyalty. Unwillingly, Shankaraji Pant and Dhanaji Jadhav swore to serve Tarabai loyally. Khando Ballal however, cleverly only specified that he would not help Shahu if he was an impostor.

With a large army, the Pratinidhi, the Senapati and the Chitnis left Satara to engage Shahu’s forces. However, the old Senapati privately asked Khando Ballal Chitnis to verify whether Shahu was indeed the real heir. Khando Ballal met Shahu Maharaj secretly and ascertained his identity. Agreeing with Balaji Vishwanath, he convinced Dhanaji to abandon Tarabai’s cause.

The Battle of Khed

Senapati Dhanaji jadhav, Commander-in-Chief of the Maratha Army — *Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav, Commander-in-Chief of the Maratha Army*; Image Source

At Khed, the two forces met. However, Dhanaji’s contingent only pretended to fight and stayed aloof. Exposed, Parshuram Pant Pratinidhi fled with his forces to Satara. Dhanaji surrendered to Shahu Maharaj, who then released him from all prior oaths and appointed him his Senapati. And they marched forward.

At Shirwal, Shahu tried to approach Shankaraji Pant Sacheev. But the honorable old minister could not decide where his loyalties lay- to his sworn oath or to the rightful heir. Torn between the two, Shankaraji committed suicide.

Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj

Now, Shahu marched to Satara. The Pratinidhi strengthened the fort and sent Tarabai and Shivaji II to Panhala. Looking at the huge fortress, Dhanaji expressed doubt about conquering it. But Shahu calmly said, “The fort will fall eight days from now.”

And fall it did. Shahu’s forces entered and imprisoned the Pratinidhi. Key to this victory were Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav and his resourceful aide, Balaji Vishwanath Bhat.

On January 12, 1708, 25-year old Shahu ascended to his grandfather’s throne. The quiet, dutiful former prisoner of the Mughal camp had now become Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj!

And just like that, a new sun had arisen over the fortunes of the Maratha Empire.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on June 26, 2020April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit

The Maratha War of Independence, Part 2- Chhatrapati Rajaram, Maharani Tarabai, and Aftermath

Sinhagad Fort; Image Source: Lobodrl / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)

The Maratha War of Independence was fought from 1681 CE to 1707 CE between the mighty Mughal Empire under Aurangzeb and the newly-independent Maratha state. For 27 long years, this David-and-Goliath war occupied western India, until just like the Biblical tale, the smaller side emerged victorious. Part 1 covered the first 9 years where the Marathas led by Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, resisted Mughal invasion. In 1689, the Mughals captured Sambhaji Maharaj captured through treachery and brutally executed him. The Maratha capital Raigad was also betrayed, and his wife and son imprisoned in Aurangzeb’s camp. The old Emperor was about to declare the war won, when he heard that Rajaram, half-brother of Sambhaji, had escaped to the fort of Vishalgad and been crowned the next Chhatrapati.

The War of Independence, it seemed, was to continue.

A Plan of Vengeance

At Vishalgad, the Maratha leadership knew they had to act fast against the Mughals. The purpose was both, to avenge their fallen king as well as to weaken the Mughals’ spirit. And so in a daring move, the new Army Commander or Senapati, Santaji Ghorpade, with three other captains and a handful of men, launched a night raid upon the Mughal camp. Slaughtering the drowsy guards, they created havoc in the camp.

Santaji went straight to the largest tent- the Emperor’s shamiana. But Aurangzeb was visiting his daughter that night, and so safe from Santaji’s wrath! Upon not finding his target, Santaji cut off the imperial golden spire at the top of the tent and made his way back to Vishalgad with a lot of loot. This incident struck terror in the hearts of the Mughals. Aurangzeb also realized how close he had come to death, and ordered his forces to Vishalgad!

The Mughal forces began systematically occupying the surrounding area, and luring the local Maratha noblemen into their service. Their power and cruelty was reaching its zenith, and the situation was dire.

The Escape to Jinjee

*Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj, 3rd Maratha Emperor*

Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj was worried. His sister-in-law had asked him to take charge of the Maratha Empire, but now she and the rightful heir to the throne, his nephew Shivaji II were prisoners. And he could do nothing to save them! He had assumed the position of the Chhatrapati only to defend the Swarajya in the name of his nephew, but his position was becoming untenable. The Mughals were swarming their territories, destroying temples and looting the populace. He took counsel with the Pradhan Mandal, his Council of Ministers. And then inspiration struck! Jinjee!

In his unparalleled foresight, the illustrious Shivaji Maharaj, father of Rajaram had campaigned far into South India, forging alliances with key rulers and conquering territories like Vellore and Jinjee in Tamil Nadu. Close to these was the Maratha Kingdom of Thanjavur, ruled by Rajaram’s cousin. These southern territories formed a second line of defense now that the strongholds of Maharashtra were threatened. And so a bold plan was hatched.

The Prime Minister or Peshwa, Nilo Pant Moreshwar, was sent ahead to secure the territory of Jinjee for the Chhatrapati. Rajaram Maharaj, accompanied by his trusted Viceroy or ‘Pratinidhi’ Pralhad Pant, his Royal Scribe or ‘Chitnis’ Khando Ballal, and some chosen soldiers escaped Vishalgad and traveled south. The Emperor of course, sent an army in pursuit, but Santaji Ghorpade and his deputy Dhanaji Jadhav harassed and dispersed this army through guerrilla attacks. Queen Keladi Chennamma of the Nayaks of Karnataka also resisted the Mughals fiercely and protected the Chhatrapati. He reached Jinjee in 1691.

Painting of Hukumatpanah Ramchandra Pant Amatya; Image Credit: By Vedika201 - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=81916411 — *Painting of Hukumatpanah Ramchandra Pant Amatya; Image Credit*

Santaji and Dhanaji, the two fearless generals then returned to meet the remaining members of the Pradhan Mandal now directing the freedom struggle in Maharashtra- Ramchandra Pant ‘Amatya’, the Finance Minister, and Shankaraji Pant ‘Sacheev’, the Royal Secretary. Ramchandra Pant Amatya was at this point, the only surviving member of Shivaji’s original Council of Ministers. And so before leaving, the Chhatrapati had bestowed the title of ‘Hukumatpanah’ upon this veteran, effectively authorizing him to rule in his stead. Along with the Sacheev and the two generals, as well as the Pant Pratinidhi and the Chitnis at Jinjee, he would lead the peoples’ guerrilla war against the Mughals.

Shivaji II becomes ‘Shahu’ in the Mughal Camps

Meanwhile, the Mughals held prisoner young Shivaji II, son of Chhatrapati Sambhaji, his mother Yesubai and 200 other members and servants of the royal household. The prisoners lived in fear for their lives, but Aurangzeb had learned his lesson. He had cruelly executed Sambhaji Maharaj and still the Marathas had continued their resistance. Deciding to play the long game, he treated Yesubai and Shivaji II comparatively mildly.

He particularly tried to influence the Maratha prince, but his name kept reminding Aurangzeb of his hated foe, the boy’s grandfather ‘Shivaji’! And so he gave the boy a new name- Shahu. Shahu grew to be an intelligent, wise and perceptive young man. Though never allowed to learn the martial skills of warfare, he became a man of great learning and culture.

A Clash of Strategies

Aurangzeb sent a large force south with his trusted General Zulfiqar Khan and his son Kam Baksh. But the citadel of Jinjee proved a match for the Mughal cannons, while the Marathas raided Mughal camps regularly with aid from the Maratha King of Thanjavur. The siege of Jinjee thus continued for 7 years!

Jinjee Fort, Capital of the Marathas under Rajaram Maharaj; Image Source: KARTY JazZ / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0) — *Jinjee Fort, Capital of the Marathas under Rajaram Maharaj; Image Source*

Meanwhile, the commanders Santaji and Dhanaji carried out a series of devastating cavalry attacks in various regions like Malwa, Karnataka and Telangana. They won some skirmishes and lost a few, but the objective was to keep the Mughal forces occupied and scattered. Other sardars such as Vithoji Chavan, the Bhonsles, and the Pawars, coordinating with the Amatya and the Sacheev, fought the Mughals all over Maharashtra. At this point, Chhatrapati Rajaram and his Council reinstated the ‘watandari’ system abolished by Shivaji Maharaj, allowing the Maratha sardars to keep whatever land they conquered as their own feudal territory.

Emboldened by the prospect of winning land and glory, a number of Maratha sardars defeated the Mughals and created their own watans. The constant battles were a colossal drain upon the treasuries and resources of Aurangzeb. Also, his absence from the north meant his governors there gained more autonomy. The Emperor sent an ultimatum to Zulfiqar Khan in 1697- conquer Jinjee or surrender your land and titles! The siege of Jinjee tightened.

The Fall of Jinjee and the Chhatrapati

By this time, Prahlad Pant Pratinidhi, the wise diplomat had passed away, and Parshuram Pant was appointed in his place. Rajaram’s wives and children were also with him in Jinjee. But the Commander-in-Chief, Santaji had been assassinated by another chieftain for petty revenge, and Dhanaji Jadhav had become the Senapati.

Monument to Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav, Commander-in-Chief of Maratha Army; Image Credits: Urunkarsa / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0) — *Monument to Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav, Commander-in-Chief of Maratha Army; Image Credits*

Foreseeing that Jinjee might not hold for much longer, Dhanaji helped Rajaram Maharaj escape the siege and make the arduous journey back to Maharashtra. In 1698 the Mughals captured Jinjee, but Khando Ballal struck a deal to ensure the safe handover of Rajaram’s wives and children.

Thus by 1700 CE, Rajaram Maharaj had reunited safely with his family and council of ministers. But his health had always been delicate, and the strain of the last decade had left him with lung disease. Thus, after 11 years of struggle, Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj passed away at Sinhagad, and the Marathas were in crisis again. Shahu, the true heir, was still a prisoner, while Rajaram’s sons were still children. Who would now to assume the leadership of the Maratha State?

Maharani Tarabai- Reign of the Warrior-Queen

*Maharani Tarabai goes to War, painting by M V Dhurandhar*

At this critical juncture, Maharani Tarabai, wife of Rajaram and daughter of the former Senapati Hambirrao, installed her infant son on the throne and ruled as the Queen Regent. A trained warrior, she worked with the Council of Ministers to continue the guerrilla warfare against the Mughals. Under her leadership, Dhanaji Jadhav’s forces invaded Gujarat and Malwa. She herself led armies along with the Amatya and the Pratinidhi to counter Aurangzeb’s weakened forces. For the next seven years, she systematically began reclaiming lost territory from the Mughals.

The Emperor had expected Maratha resistance to shatter after Rajaram’s death. Now in his eighties, he became hapless. His armies would besiege a fort for months; then pay heavy sums of money to the Marathas in order to capture it. The moment he turned his back, the Marathas led by Tarabai would return and recapture it. The vast amount of resources consumed by over two decades of war had greatly weakened Mughal territories economically. They began to fall to the Marathas. It seemed even the Deccan itself was fighting back! He lost a lot of loot when a river flooded, and an avalanche crippled one of his legs. His armies, tired of the fruitless war, also longed to go home.

At last in 1707, Aurangzeb began to return to Delhi. But on the way, he breathed his last in Aurangabad and was forever buried in Maratha soil. How it must have pained him, that the land of Shivaji Maharaj would claim his bones! Thus died the last ‘Great Mughal’, and with him died the glory of his empire.

Aftermath of the 27-Year War

Aurangzeb’s death marked the end of the war, for his sons immediately began fighting for the throne. In the process, they released Shahu from prison, who returned to claim his birthright. His aunt Tarabai was unwilling to hand over the throne, and a civil war ensued. However, with the support of stalwarts like Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav, Parsoji Bhonsle, Khando Ballal Chitnis, and Balaji Vishwanath Bhat, Shahu Maharaj was crowned Chhatrapati at Satara. He gave Kolhapur and the southern territories to Tarabai and her son as an independent kingdom. His wise reign, and the capable rule of his Peshwas and Sardars, resulted in the creation of a powerful, stable and prosperous Maratha Empire.

Endnote

As mentioned in Part 1, this was a war between a mighty Empire and an Ideal. Evidently, the Ideal won. Why? Because it inspired, united and motivated people to keep fighting beyond reason, or hope. When in doubt, in crisis or despair, I hope the Maratha War of Independence similarly inspires all of us to keep fighting.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on June 26, 2020April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit

The Maratha War of Independence, Part 1: Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj

Nipunbayas / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)

Seldom has a war that went on for so long, been spoken of so little. How many Indians have heard of a war that went on for 27 years, claimed millions of lives, and ended with the humiliation of one of the greatest Empires of its times? The Maratha War of Independence, or the Mughal-Maratha War, certainly deserves a mention in the chronicles of Indian history. For it was not a war of one feuding kingdom against another. It was a war between a mighty Empire and a powerful Ideal- the Ideal of Hindavi Swarajya, or independence of the Indian people. And in the end, the Ideal won.

The Setting

1681. The Lion of the Deccan, the Sun of the Swarajya, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj had passed away a year earlier. His son Sambhaji Maharaj now ruled from Raigad as the Chhatrapati of the fledgling Maratha Empire. Despite intrigue from within his own family and his father’s council of ministers, who had tried to use his adolescent half-brother Rajaram against him; Sambhaji Maharaj had outwitted them and ascended to his birthright. A mighty warrior as well as a scholar, the young king knew he had a difficult task ahead of him. And his apprehension was proved right.

*Portrait of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, 2nd Maratha Emperor*

In Delhi, young Prince Akbar II had rebelled against his father, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, in outrage over his ill-treatment of the Rajputs of Marwar, but lost. The rebels had scattered, with the Mughals hunting them one-by-one. Where could he go to seek refuge from his father’s wrath? The Rajputs had an answer: the hill-forts of the Deccan, under the protection of the Maratha Chhatrapati! With the famed Rajput hero Durgadas Rathore protecting him, Akbar II journeyed south and was given asylum.

When Aurangzeb Alamgir heard, he was furious! That Sambhaji, son of his most implacable adversary, could defy him so openly! Aurangzeb had long dreamt of bringing the Deccan to heel, and conquering all of South India. Gathering an army of more than half a million men from all corners of the Mughal Empire, he left Delhi in September 1681 in a splendor worthy of one of the richest empires in the world. As Stanley Wolpert writes, “Aurangzeb’s encampment was like a moving capital – a city of tents 30 miles in circumference, with some 250 bazaars, with a half million camp followers, 50,000 camels and 30,000 elephants.” The stage was set for his supposedly grand conquest of the Deccan.

He never returned.

Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj- Rudra Personified

*Statue of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj in Pune; Image Source: Apricus / CC BY-SA (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)*

Chhatrapati Sambhaji was campaigning with the majority of his army against the Siddis harassing his coast when he heard of the Mughals moving towards his capital Raigad. Moving swiftly, he defeated the Mughal contingent and drove it back towards Ahmednagar. He returned to Raigad and took command of the defenses, supported by his advisor and close friend the poet Kavi Kalash, his capable wife Maharani Yesubai, his veteran Army Commander-in-Chief or Senapati, Hambirrao Mohite, and other Ministers. Aurangzeb had by then established his encampment at Aurangabad, and his armies now moved to besiege several Maratha forts. The Marathas on their part ably defended their fortresses and denied the Mughals any headway in the campaign.

Aurangzeb attempted to strike a deal with the Portuguese to allow his ships to harbor in Goa, giving him another supply route through the sea. His spies informed him of this, so Sambhaji Maharaj preemptively struck at the northern Portuguese territories. He pushed them back to the Goa coast with such ferocity, that the Viceroy could barely defend the Portuguese headquarters. At the same time, Senapati Hambirrao engaged the army contingents under the Mughal Princes in guerrilla warfare and defeated them. But news came of a huge Mughal army and navy assembling at the borders of the Deccan in early 1684, and the Chhatrapati had to turn back from Goa to secure his territory. Both sides were now slowly coming to a terrible realization: the war was only just beginning.

A Change of Strategies

The enterprising Chhatrapati then signed a defensive treaty with the British, thus procuring artillery and explosives which he used to conquer several forts from the Mughals. Enraged, Aurangzeb sent his general to take Raigad in late 1684, but the Senapati defeated and forced him to retreat.

Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir I; Source: Unknown author / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) — *Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir I; Image Source*

Realizing the futility of his plans, Alamgir also changed his strategies. In April 1685, he attacked the Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda. These crumbling Sultanates subdued by the Marathas, had signed a peace treaty with the Mughals. However, defeating them would give the Emperor a greater hold over the Deccan. Within the next two years, Aurangzeb managed to destroy them and replenished his supplies and manpower, as many of the noblemen from the sultanates joined his armies. Chikkadevraja of Mysore who had been paying tribute to the Marathas, ceased to do so out of fear of the Mughals. With renewed vigor, Aurangzeb returned to what had now become his primary objective- defeating the Marathas.

A Reversal of Fortunes

With diminishing supplies and allies, Sambhaji was no longer able to support Prince Akbar, but helped him escape to Persia. Aurangzeb’s army attacked Satara, but Senapati Hambirrao and his contingent managed to draw the Mughals into the dense jungles of Wai and Mahabaleshwar. The fierce Battle of Wai ensued; the Marathas won but lost their Commander, Hambirrao in the process.

The veteran Commander’s death was a serious blow to the Chhatrapati’s strength and prestige. In addition, political clashes broke out between different factions. Chhatrapati Shivaji’s far-sighted policy of not giving land or ‘watans’ to the noblemen but making them salaried employees, continued by Sambhaji Maharaj, led to some chieftains defecting to the Mughals for selfish gain. As many began to defect, including one of Sambhaji’s brothers-in-law, the situation grew dire. The Chhatrapati called a Council meeting at Sangameshwar to discuss further plans. But his position being betrayed by the defectors, Mughal General Muqarrab Khan led a heavy force and surrounded them. Some leaders having gone ahead, the remaining Marathas fought fearsomely and the new Senapati, Mhaloji Ghorpade died defending his king. But alas! Sambhaji Maharaj and Kavi Kalash were captured and taken to the Mughal camp via secret routes.

A Last Roar of Defiance

The Mughal camp at Bahadurgad was rejoicing at the capture of the Chhatrapati. Sambhaji Maharaj and Kavi Kalash were brought to the camp, made to wear the clothes of prisoners and jesters, and paraded around on camels. The jeers and taunts of the Mughals were worse than any torture for the proud king.

After some more torture, the soldiers brought them before the Emperor in chains. Aurangzeb expected them to submit, but to his astonishment Sambhaji refused to even bow to him! The ‘Chhava’ or ‘Young Lion’ stood erect, boldly daring to look into Aurangzeb’s eyes! According to Mughal customs, this was an insult to the Emperor. Angered, he demanded that Sambhaji turn over his treasuries, as well as the names of his informers, and accept the suzerainty of the Mughals. The Maratha Chhatrapati proudly declined, while Kavi Kalash began to recite poetry praising his king and taunting the Emperor.

Dramatic modern depiction of Sambhaji Maharaj in chains; Image Source: https://www.historyfiles.co.uk — *Dramatic modern depiction of Sambhaji Maharaj in chains; Image Source https://www.historyfiles.co.uk*

Accounts of the torture that followed vary in the description, but not in the horror. The Masir-i-Alamgiri eyewitness chronicles state that Sambhaji’s eyes were put out that same night, and Kavi Kalash deprived of his tongue. The next day, both of them were put to the sword. The Futuh’at-i-Alamgiri further narrates that even after losing his eyes, Sambhaji refused to accept a morsel of food from his captors, or to divulge any information. Other accounts state that his captors repeatedly pressed him to convert to Islam, but he staunchly refused. He was then taken away along with Kavi Kalash, and their limbs were hacked off one by one until death. Their executors threw the pieces of their bodies into the river at Tulapur.

Thus was Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj martyred on 11^th March 1689, and the Maratha Empire plunged into darkness.

The Fall of Raigad and its Aftermath

*Raigad Fort, capital of the Marathas during the reign of Sambhaji Maharaj; Image Source*

During these events, Mughal General Zulfiqar Khan had besieged the Maratha capital, and Sambhaji’s capture lowered the defenders’ morale. In this crucial hour, the widowed Maharani Yesubai took charge. She brought forth Sambhaji’s half-brother Rajaram and asked him to take over the duties of the Chhatrapati, as her own son Shivaji II was but 7 years old. As circumstances worsened, she arranged Rajaram’s escape to Vishalgad fort along with some ministers, and remained behind to defend Raigad. But Raigad fell to the Mughals, betrayed by disgruntled sardars. Yesubai, her son Shivaji II, and many members of the royal family fell into Mughal hands. The Mughal camps erupted in jubilant celebration, for Aurangzeb believed the war finally over.

But he was wrong. The brutal murder of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj would turn out to be Aurangzeb’s greatest mistake. It horrified the Maratha people, and rekindled the fire of freedom in their hearts. Chhatrapati Sambhaji’s sacrifice seemed to transform every blade of grass into a sword, every boulder into a fortress, and every man, woman and child into a warrior. The embers of Maratha self-esteem had received the sacrifice of their king’s blood, and they flared brighter than ever before. It had now truly become a war of the people. The newly-crowned Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj and his Council of Ministers resolved to avenge this sacrifice, and continue the war at any cost.

So how did the Marathas fight back in their darkest hour? Were they able to avenge their fallen King? Find out in Part 2 of this article, coming up soon.

Endnote

Here, let us stop for now, and reflect for a moment on this tremendous sacrifice. Is there an ideal, a purpose, a noble goal in our lives for which we would be willing to stand up and make sacrifices? It is a question worth pondering, as we wait for Part 2 of the Maratha War of Independence.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on June 25, 2020June 6, 2022 by Ashutosh Dixit · 1 Comment

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj: A Founding Father of Modern India

Statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj at Pratapgad

The glorious annals of the history of the Indian Subcontinent span over 5000 years. From the first cities that sprung up in the Indus Valley, to the modern countries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal, the Subcontinent has seen its fair share of states and empires rise and fall. From the Maurya Empire that ruled the entire Subcontinent and beyond in 300 BCE, to the Golden Age of the Gupta Dynasty; the Gurjar-Pratiharas in the North to the Cholas in the South, and from the Hindu Kshatriya Rajputs in Rajasthan and the Buddhist Shaka-Kushans to the Turco-Persian Muslim Sultanates of Delhi, the Subcontinent has ever been a multi-cultural whirlpool.

And yet, some men and women have left an indelible print in the pages of history, as well as in the minds and hearts of the generations to come. One such name, of course, is Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj.

Portrait of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Emperor of the Marathas — *Rare portrait of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj at the Rijksmuseum; Image Credit: Unknown author / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)*

Shivaji Maharaj was a 17^th-century warrior-king who, with his brilliant military and administrative genius and a handful of rugged soldiers, carved out his own kingdom in western Maharashtra of present-day India. Prevailing against the Adil Shahi Sultanate and the mighty forces of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, Shivaji Maharaj went on to become the founder and first Emperor or ‘Chhatrapati’ of the Maratha Empire. This Empire would emerge supreme after decades of warfare against the Mughals and influence the entire Subcontinent till the early 19^th century.

But in the galaxy of distinguished men and women that have graced this ancient land, what makes Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj stand out?

Political Significance

The Maratha Empire was a significant political development in Indian history. With his coronation proclaiming official sovereignty in 1674, Shivaji Maharaj did the unthinkable: he reversed the trends of history. With the tolerance of Emperor Akbar’s reign having long given way to the bigotry of Aurangzeb, the successful Maratha Revolution struck a huge blow to Mughal prestige and emboldened other disillusioned feudatories to rise in rebellion.

As the Empire later expanded northward under Shivaji’s grandson Chhatrapati Shahu I and his capable Prime Ministers or Peshwas, it became the first Empire in 700 years (after the Rashtrakutas) to have conquered from the south of the Narmada river to the north. At the same time, while being tolerant of all faiths, the Maratha Empire was officially a Hindu state, following the ancient Indian principles of governance. Thus, the Maratha Empire became the first pan-India Hindu Empire in 700 years.

Military Contributions

Shivaji Raje Bhonsale, as the son of a local feudal chieftain, started his conquests in 1646 with only a few hundred infantry or foot-soldiers. At the end of his reign in 1680, the Marathas had an Army, comprising of infantry, cavalry and artillery, as well as a Navy, with a standing manpower of over 1,00,000 soldiers, and control of over 360 forts in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.

In later years, the Maratha military under the leadership of Peshwa Bajirao I and his successors went on to conquer the major parts of India from Attock in present-day Pakistan to Orissa in the East, and Peshawar in the north to Thanjavur in the south.

*Highest Extent of the Maratha Empire (1759); Source: Shivaji- His Life and Times by G.B. Mehendale*

What made the Marathas such a powerful military force? In his lifetime, Shivaji Maharaj had perfected the tactics of asymmetrical or guerilla warfare in order to successfully defeat foes with numerically superior armies. Time and again, the later Maratha leaders used the Chhatrapati’s strategies to revolutionize warfare in the Indian Subcontinent!

Not stopping at land-based warfare, the intrepid king also realized the importance of a strong navy and a secure coastline to counter naval attacks and the growing influence of foreign colonists. With the vision of developing his fledgling empire into a naval power when no other Indian ruler was doing so, he built a formidable navy and sea-fortresses like Sindhudurg or Vijaydurg. The Maratha Navy would go on to defeat the Portuguese, the Siddi and the English in major naval battles. For this stupendous foresight, he is rightly hailed as the ‘Father of Modern Indian Navy’.

Administrative Brilliance

– The Pradhan Mandal

Shivaji Maharaj laid the foundation of a decentralized monarchy, by appointing his own Cabinet of Eight Ministers or Ashta Pradhan Mandal. Headed by a Prime Minister or Peshwa, each minister governed one administrative department, much like any modern government; although the ultimate authority was vested in the absolute monarch. The original positions were:

Peshwa or Mukhya Pradhan = Prime Minister

Shuru-navis or Sacheev = Secretary

Mazumdar or Amatya = Finance Minister

Sar-naubat or Senapati = Army Commander-in-Chief

Waqia-navis or Mantri = Interior Minister

Sumant or Dabeer = Foreign Minister

Nyayadhish = Chief Justice

Panditrao = High Priest and in-charge of Education

Later on, a couple of more positions were added, such as:

Pratinidhi = Viceroy/Representative

Sarkhel = Navy Admiral

This revolutionary idea changed governance in India, making administration more efficient and ensuring a just and prosperous government. This decentralization allowed for great resilience and resurgence in tough times.

After the cruel execution of Shivaji’s valiant son and successor Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, and the fall of his capital, the Mughal Emperor believed the Marathas were effectively crushed. However, from the stronghold of Jinjee in Tamil Nadu, Shivaji’s younger son Chhatrapati Rajaram could continue the struggle through his able ministers such as Ramchandra Pant ‘Amatya’ and Shankaraji Pant ‘Sacheev’, and brilliant ‘Senapatis’ such as Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav.

– Abolishment of ‘Watandari’ System

With his characteristic foresight, Chhatrapati Shivaji also abolished the watandari feudal system of the medieval era, based on land ownership by the local noblemen and lords. Instead, he established a system where all his noblemen were appointed and salaried employees of the government, thus strengthening centralized power. While the feudal noblemen were allowed to continue their titles and minor privileges, the revenue collection was now entirely handled by salaried central government employees, prohibiting the exploitation of farmers. No king had ever thought of abolishing the feudal system in that time, and this step has been praised as a precursor of modern administration.

Unfortunately, during the latter half of the Mughal-Maratha War, the Marathas were forced to reinstate the watandari system to retain their noblemen’s loyalty. However, the principle of abolishing this prevalent practice clearly illustrates the administrative brilliance of the ‘Great Maratha’.

Economic Measures

Not stopping at administrative reforms, Shivaji Maharaj also took great efforts to improve the economy of his fledgling kingdom. He improved upon the revenue system set by Dadaji Konddev, to standardize the measurement of land and approximate yield based on the type of soil. He provided incentives to farmers so that they were encouraged to start working on previously unfarmed land. Also, by abolishing the revenue collection by watandars, he increased the tax received by the central government as well as the portion that was left with the peasants, benefitting them both.

Apart from agriculture and industry, he also promoted trade by land and sea. Maratha merchant vessels began plying their goods from the Konkan up to Iran, Turkey, and Arabia. He collected octroi from traders on land as well as the sea, especially from the Europeans. One example of his excellent policies is when he increased the tax on Portuguese-produced salt, so that people began buying salt produced in Maratha territories.

Social and Cultural Policies

Young Shivaji had been raised in a deeply religious Hindu upbringing by his mother Jijabai. The oppression faced by Hindus during his formative years left a deep impression upon him, and he rebuilt many temples that had been destroyed by Islamic or European invaders. He also provided the choice of reconversion to Hindus who had been forcibly converted, and insisted on using Sanskrit terminologies in his administration rather than the prevalent Persian. He ordered the ‘Rajyavyavaharkosha’ to be compiled, in order to replace Persian words in the Marathi language with their Sanskrit-based counterparts. Thus, he inculcated a sense of pride, belonging and unity in a native population that had long suffered against foreign yoke.

*Saptakoteshwar Temple, Goa built by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj after the Portuguese had destroyed the original*

Despite this, he respected all religions and peoples, and treated all his subjects with equal and absolute justice and compassion. Unlike others of the time, his disciplined armies never indulged in wanton destruction or looting, and surrendered enemies were treated with dignity. The respect shown to the women and children captured during wartime is worthy of admiration.

Also, in times where appointing hereditary heirs or political supporters to high positions was common, he appointed people based on their talent or capability rather than arbitrary measures of birth, community or caste, ensuring the right people in right positions. His fair policies and deep concern for his subjects made him a King beloved by his people.

Influence and Inspiration

Chhatrapati Shivaji’s great vision was of Hindavi Swarajya- to throw off the decadent Mughal rule and unite all of the Indian Subcontinent under the banner of ‘Self-Rule’ or ‘Independence’ based on indigenous or ‘dharmic’ principles. This grand vision inspired and encouraged a number of other heroes- such as Durgadas Rathore in Marwar, Raja Chhatrasal in Bundelkhand, and Lachit Borphukan in Assam- to resist the cruel and intolerant policies of Aurangzeb.

This vision was taken forward by Shivaji’s sons and grandsons, their ministers and generals. Eventually, the Marathas conquered most of India including Delhi, where the Mughal Emperor was made a puppet. For over 70 years, the Bhagwa Dhwaj of the Marathas fluttered throughout the nation as its pre-eminent power, and India flourished under its watchful gaze. Chhatrapati Shivaji’s vision lived on for centuries after his death, inspiring everyone from Rani Laxmibai to Lokmanya Tilak, Swami Vivekananda to Rabindranath Tagore, and Veer Savarkar to Netaji Bose in their fight for righteousness and freedom from tyranny- a testament to his greatness.

Modern India and the Chhatrapati

When the Europeans arrived on the shores of the subcontinent and began to study the history of this ancient land, they were understandably perplexed. Unlike the history of Europe, they were unable to classify Indian history into the ‘Classical, Medieval, Modern’ categorization. Several alternatives were proposed to herald the beginning of Modern India- such as the rise of the Mughals (1526) or their downfall after Aurangzeb and the rise of Marathas (beginning 1707).

The Coronation of Shivaji Maharaj as 'Chhatrapati' at Raigad Fort in 1674 — *The Coronation as ‘Chhatrapati’ at Raigad Fort in 1674*

Whichever way we look at it: if we consider the above points, it cannot be denied that the life and work of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj had a significant impact on the Subcontinent. His ideas, foresight, policies and principled character are an example for modern India to follow. The Empire he founded went on to change the status quo of the country and began the process of moving towards the modern age, till it was divided and conquered by the British. For all this transformation, it is imperative to celebrate this venerated figure as one of the founders of modern India.

One idea- Hindavi Swarajya- and look at its result! What is true greatness, but that your vision lives on long after you and continues to inspire people to fight for it? Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was thus, not only an ideal warrior, administrator, and ruler, but truly a visionary: one of those rare men that transform the world with their ideas during their very lifetime. To this inspirational hero, our symbol of freedom and hope, one of the Founding Fathers of Modern India, I pay my humble respects.

Jai Bhavani, Jai Shivaji! Har Har Mahadev!

– Ashutosh Dixit

Sources:

Administrative System of the Marathas- Surendranath Sen
Military System of the Marathas- Surendranath Sen
Shivaji- His Life and Times- G. B. Mehendale