Ashutosh Dixit, Author at Words and Swords

Posted on October 2, 2021October 10, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 5 Comments

12 Greatest Empires in Indian History- 4. The Gupta Empire

Over the years, the Indian Subcontinent has seen many great empires, beginning with the Maurya Empire that covered over 5 million sq. km. of land! In this series of articles, we take a look at some of the greatest empires of the Indian Subcontinent.

The most powerful successors to the Mauryas, the Kushan Empire in North India (including Pakistan) and the Satavahana Empire in the Deccan, were both declining rapidly by 250 CE. They soon fragmented into a number of smaller states, which began scrambling among themselves for supremacy. However, before long, a new power arose that united and stabilized most of the subcontinent, leading to the Golden Age of Classical India- the Guptas!

Many historians consider the glorious reign of the Guptas as the pinnacle of Indian culture and civilization. Let us find out why!

4. The Gupta Empire (250 CE – 550 CE)

Maximum extent of the Gupta Empire under Chandragupta II (414 CE, including tributaries)

One of the most famous Indian Empires in history, the Gupta Empire rose in the 3^rd century CE (AD) to cover 3.4 million sq. km. at its zenith. The Guptas originated in north India, most likely in present-day Uttar Pradesh, and were probably local warlords under the Kushan Empire. Belonging probably to the Vaishya class (or Kshatriya as per some sources) of Hindu society, they grew independent with the decline of the Kushans, and began carving out their own kingdom.

Rise

The empire began with Sri Gupta, a vassal of the heavily-declined Kushan Empire, assuming royal status in 240 CE. By 250 CE, he had succeeded in establishing his own rule from Pataliputra (modern-day Patna, Bihar) and stretching till Bengal. Assuming the title of Maharaja, he ruled till 280 CE. His son Ghatotkacha continued his father’s policy of cautious expansion, and arranged his son Chandragupta’s marriage with Princess Kumaradevi of the Lichhavis in 307 CE.

The resulting political alliance helped Ghatotkacha’s son Chandragupta I expand his influence upon coming to power in 320 CE. Over the next 30 years, Chandragupta I conquered the Magadha, Prayag, and Ayodhya regions. His empire now covering all of Bihar and parts of modern UP and Bengal, he adopted the title of Maharajadhiraj, meaning ‘King of Kings’ or ‘Emperor’. The gold coins minted during this period show both Chandragupta and Kumaradevi, denoting her substantial role in this expansion.

Gold coin depicting Maharajadhiraj Chandragupta I and Maharani Kumaradevi; Image by Uploadalt - Own work, photographed at the British Museum, CC BY-SA 3.0 — *Gold coin depicting Maharajadhiraj Chandragupta I and Maharani Kumaradevi; Image by Uploadalt – Own work, photographed at the British Museum, CC BY-SA 3.0*

Zenith of the Empire

However, it was during the reign of their son Samudragupta the Great that the empire extended to become a sub-continental power. Coming to power in 335 CE, Samudragupta defeated 8 northern kings, conquering from the Himalayan foothills upto Malwa (modern Madhya Pradesh)! To the east, he defeated the Vangas to annex Bengal, and then conquered till Chhatisgarh, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh. Several other rulers from Nepal, Assam, Uttarakhand, Karnataka, and Andhra became his tributaries, and the kings of Sri Lanka and South-east Asian countries sent lavish tributes in friendly alliance. He is often called the ‘Napoleon of India’, although, as he lived 1500 years before Napoleon and unlike Napoleon, never lost a battle, it should be the other way round!

*Samudragupta the Great, expander of the Gupta Empire; Image Source*

To commemorate his victory, he performed the Vedic Ashwamedh yajna, signifying his supreme status as ‘Chakravarti’. Along with his extraordinary military career, he promoted arts and sciences and was an accomplished poet and ‘veena’ player!

In 375 CE, after a failed rule by his son Ramagupta, Samudragupta’s favored son Chandragupta II ascended the throne. He took the empire to the height of its power. Chandragupta’s daughter Prabhavati married into the Vakataka dynasty of the Deccan. With their support he destroyed the Indo-Scythian Shakas of western India to conquer up to the Indus River (modern Pakistan). He also carried out successful campaigns till Kabul, Afghanistan, noted via inscriptions of ‘King Chandra’. In the south, his influence extended up to Karnataka and Telangana through matrimonial alliances with the Vakatakas and Kadambas.

*Chandragupta II Vikramaditya, greatest ruler of the Gupta Empire; Image Source: Pinterest*

The Golden Age of the Gupta Empire

Chandragupta II ruled for 40 years, and established peace and prosperity across India. Known by the exalted titles ‘Vikramaditya’ and ‘Apratirathi’ (one who has no equal), his influence reached till Iran and South-east Asia. He promoted arts, science, literature, and philosophy, and his court became famous for the ‘Nine Jewels’ or ‘Navaratnas’- celebrated scholars from these fields.

Chandragupta II was followed by his son Kumaragupta I (415-455 CE), who maintained peace and continued the Golden Age. However, around 450 CE the Central Asian Hunas (Hephthalite or Hun tribes) invaded up to the Indus River, and the Prince Skandagupta defeated them. From 455 to 467, Skandagupta ruled in relative peace as well, barring small conflicts with the Vakatakas.

Decline

Skandagupta, the last of the ‘Great Guptas’, was succeded by his half-brother who ruled only for 7 years; and his son who ruled for merely 3 years. During the reign of Budhagupta (476-495 CE), the Huns repeatedly invaded and settled the fertile Punjab plains, greatly weakening the Gupta Empire, and requiring an alliance of Indian kings to repel them. In the time of Narasimhagupta (495-530 CE), the Hun ruler Mihirakula made devastating raids into Gupta territory, extracting tributes. Yashodharman, the King of Malwa, united with Narasimhagupta to completely defeat the Huns at the Battle of Sondani.

Rapidly declining due to devastating raids and administrative incompetence, the Gupta Empire ended in 550 CE with Emperor Vishnugupta’s death.

Political, Military, and Administrative Aspects

The Gupta Empire was a well-administered monarchy with a hierarchy of administrative divisions. The Empire or Rashtra was divided into 26 provinces called Pradeshas ruled by provincial rulers often called Maharajas. These provinces were further divided into Vishayas, each ruled by a Vishayapati with the help of a council of representatives.

The Guptas structured their military similar to the Kushans, along with some technological and tactical innovations such as siege engines and heavy cavalry archers. The army comprised of 4 main units: infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots. Interestingly, based on these units, the strategy game of chaturanga or Chess developed during this era, with the 4 units represented by pawns, knights, rooks, and bishops respectively! The Guptas also had an efficient navy protecting their vast coastline.

Social, Cultural, and Economic Aspects

The Chinese traveler Fa Xian during the time of Chandragupta II wrote that the country was prosperous and peaceful; the urban people cultured and educated, and the government was efficient. Crime was low, and punishments lenient.

The Guptas had trade relations with Rome, China, Persia, and South-east Asia. They exported luxury products like silk, fur, iron products, ivory, pearls to Europe and Central Asia. However, in later years, the destructive Huna invasions disrupted this trade and the accompanying tax revenues.

The Guptas were devout Vaishnava-sect Hindus, and also promoted other sects and religions like Shaivism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Kumaragupta I founded the famous Nalanda University, which became a global center for Buddhist and advanced philosophical studies. While society followed the caste system during this time, it was quite fluid in terms of occupation. The Gupta Emperors, most likely Vaishyas, intermarried with the Kshatriya Lichhavis and the Brahmin Vakatakas without obstacles or disapproval. However, Fa Xian notes that a few castes were considered untouchable because they indulged in hunting, fishing, or tanning professions.

The Guptas were renowned across the world for their patronage of literature, science, mathematics, and art. In fact, their encouragement contributed to the greatest surge in all fields ever seen in India, leading to the Golden Age.

The Gupta Empire– The Golden Age of Classical Hindu India

Literature: Among the Navaratnas of Chandragupta II, Kalidasa is recognized as one of the greatest playwrights and poets in the world, who took Sanskrit literature to its peak with works like ‘Meghdoot’, ‘Raghuvamsha’, ‘Shakuntala’, ‘Kumarasambhav’ and many more. Based on the Vedas, Puranas, Ramayana, and Mahabharata, his works have become extremely influential in history.

Kalidasa writing the 'Meghdoota', 20th century illustration — *Kalidasa writing the ‘Meghdoota’, 20th century illustration*

Another of the Navaratnas, Amarasimha, was a poet and a Sanskrit grammarian, who wrote the treatise Amarakosha containing a lexicon of 10,000 Sanskrit words. The famous poet Bharavi also probably rose to fame in the later Gupta era.

The philosopher Vatsyayana also wrote the famous Kama Sutra, a treatise on the pursuit of pleasure, and sexual and emotional fulfillment in life during this period.

Medicine: the Navratna Dhanvantari authored a medical glossary. The Sushruta Samhita, one of the oldest medical and surgical books in the world, was completed in its final form during the Gupta Era. It contains surgical techniques for probing, extraction of foreign bodies, cauterization, tooth extraction, caesarian section, fracture management, cataract surgery, and fitting of prosthetics.

Science and Mathematics: In this era, Aryabhata became the most famous Indian mathematician, astronomer, and physicist. In his mathematical treatise ‘Aryabhatiya’ he:

Became the first to extensively use the place value system and consider ‘0’ a separate number
Laid the foundation of Trigonometry by defining the values of ‘jya’ (sine) and ‘kojya’ (cosine)
Became the first to propose the value of ‘Pi’ accurately to 3 decimals

*The great Aryabhata, Statue at IUCAA, Pune*

In his work ‘Arya-Siddhanta’ on astronomy, he proposed some path-breaking discoveries:

The earth is round and revolves around its own axis
The movement of planets and stars observed is relative to the earth’s motion, thus providing the Laws of Relative Motion
The moon and planets reflect the light of the Sun
The earth and moon’s shadows cause eclipses, not ‘Rahu’ and ‘Ketu’

In the later Gupta era, Varahamihira wrote the famed Brihatsamhita which contributed to architecture, planetary motions, astrology, agriculture, mathematics etc.

Architecture: We can see several examples of Gupta architecture among the various temples, stupas, inscription pillars and other structures. The Iron Pillar of Delhi, built by Chandragupta II Vikramaditya to record his victories and honor Lord Vishnu, has remained rust-resistant to this day, giving proof of the advanced metallurgical techniques of the era.

*Gupta Empire-era architecture (clockwise): Mahabodhi Temple, Dashavtara Temple, Ajanta Caves, Sanchi Temple*

But when the Gupta Empire fell, the ensuing chaos resulted in the caste system becoming very rigid, caste intermarriage becoming rare, and a new social order of ‘upper’ and ‘lower’ castes emerging. India became fragmented again into small kingdoms fighting each other, and scientific progress declined. Thus, historians consider the fall of the Gupta Empire as the end of Classical Hindu India.

Legacy

The Gupta Empire marks the pinnacle of classical Indian civilization, primarily Hindu but also Buddhist and Jain cultures. The peace they brought to the Indian Subcontinent resulted in widespread prosperity, low crime rate, extraordinary scientific and artistic advancements.

Today, the Aryabhatta Knowledge University (AKU), Patna for technical, medical, management, and allied professional education, and the Aryabhatta Research Institute of Obseervational Sciences (ARIES), Nainital for astronomy and astrophysics honor the genius mathematician. The scientific and artistic achievements of this era influence the world, which has adopted the Indian numeric system and the use of ‘Zero. Kalidasa’s plays now translated in Persian, Arabic, German, and other European languages. And, we remember Samudragupta the Great and Chandragupta II Vikramaditya as two of the greatest emperors the world has ever seen.

All good things must come to an end, indeed; but they must never be forgotten. The Gupta Empire thus remains a fondly and proudly remembered golden chapter in the history of the Indian Subcontinent.

Posted on April 28, 2021April 29, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 4 Comments

Peshwa Bajirao Ballal, Part 2: Maratha Supremacy in India

Shaniwarwada; Image Source: NishantAChavan, CC BY-SA 3.0

On 28th April 1740, Peshwa Bajirao I passed away, leaving behind a vast empire and legacy. The Indian government released a stamp in 2004 commemorating him. What sets him apart from the other great leaders in Indian history?

In Part 1, we traced the first 10 years of Bajirao Ballal’s career as Peshwa or Prime Minister of the Maratha Empire. Now, we take a look at how he established Maratha supremacy in India, and study his personality and legacy.

*Stamp of Peshwa Bajirao, by Indian Government*; Image Source

Peshwa Bajirao I- A Masterful Personality

Invoking the Mahabharat story where Arjun chose Lord Krishna alone for his side rather than his entire army, Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj was often known to say, “If I had a choice between an army and Bajirao, I’d choose Bajirao!” Soldiers from all over the Deccan also preferred to serve him, and followed him anywhere with the utmost faith. Why?

Social Policies and Lifestyle

Although from a traditional Brahmin family, Bajirao I never discriminated among his people. He chose and promoted people based on merit, and many of his lieutenants came from humble backgrounds. Malharrao Holkar was a mercenary from the Dhangar (shepherd) caste, Ranoji Shinde was a Maratha Kunbi (farmer) and served as the Peshwa’s valet, Govindpant Kher Bundele was a personal assistant, Govind and Ramchandra Patwardhan were sons of a respected but poor Pandit. Under Bajirao’s patronage, they all rose to great heights as generals and noblemen.

The Peshwa also lived the same kind of life as his soldiers; sharing in their troubles and hardships without special privileges. He even ate meat and sat in the same ‘pangat’ with them, no matter their caste or class. Hence, he became the most beloved military leader of his time, and led his loyal troops to victory over many enemies!

*The enemies defeated by Marathas under Peshwa Bajirao: Mughals, Nizam, British, Siddi, and Portuguese*

Discipline and Loyalty

Even Bajirao’s enemies admitted his discipline and readiness for any situation; and the same was instilled in his army. His discipline was only exceeded by his loyalty to the Maratha Empire and Shahu Maharaj. Though he became the most powerful chieftain of his times, he always considered himself the Chhatrapati’s servant, paying him due respect and heeding his advice. He rarely disobeyed the Chhatrapati’s direct command…except once.

The Battle of Dabhoi

The Peshwa and the Senapati had always worked closely in the Pradhan Mandal. However, in 1726, a dispute arose when Chhatrapati Shahu gave the Gujarat administration to Bajirao’s brother Chimaji Appa. Senapati Khanderao Dabhade, who controlled most of Gujarat, protested that it would reduce his prestige and income. When he died in 1728, his son Trimbakrao became the Senapati. At this time, tired of constant battles with the Marathas, the Mughal Subhedar of Gujarat, Raja Abhay Singh approached Chimaji to bring peace to the region, in return for half the revenue.

This provoked the Dabhades. Peshwa Bajirao tried to negotiate peace by offering them half the revenue of Malwa. However, the Nizam of Hyderabad convinced Trimbakrao and his mother Umabai this was the Peshwa’s ploy to steal their territory! Trimbakrao rebelled. The Nizam and Mughals supported him, thrilled at the chance of hurting Bajirao.

Peshwa vs Senapati

Alarmed at the tensions between his two ministers, Shahu Maharaj told Chimaji to hand over Gujarat to Trimbakrao. However, Bajirao knew this could embolden other Sardars to blackmail for their demands. weakening central authority. Hence, while Holkar kept the Nizam and Mughals occupied, Bajirao and Chimaji reached Gujarat and fought the Senapati at Dabhoi. Peshwa Bajirao had given orders not to harm Trimbakrao, but he died of a stray bullet.

*Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj (left) and Peshwa Bajirao I (right)*

Regretful, Bajirao returned to Satara. The Chhatrapati knew that by allying with the Nizam, Trimbakrao had betrayed the Marathas. He asked Umabai to forgive Bajirao and Chimaji and make peace. The revenue of Gujarat was shared equally between the Senapati and the central government.

Diplomacy with the Nizam

In 1732, Nizam ul-Mulk and Peshwa Bajirao met at Rui Rameshwar to discuss terms. They signed a secret pact to stay out of each other’s way. Why did he make peace with a man who had repeatedly opposed him? The answer reveals both Bajirao’s foresight as well as decision-making ability.

*Nizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad and Mughal Paatshah Muhammad Shah I*

Bajirao knew he could not fight on two fronts forever. He had to decide whether the Marathas should focus on liberating the Deccan from the Nizam, or capturing North India from the Mughals. He knew the Nizam was a cunning, experienced strategist and protected his new territory well. On the other hand, though the Mughals had far greater armies and resources, they were divided and lacked strong leadership. Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah cared only about luxury and pleasures. Boldly, he decided to focus on Delhi, and establish Marathas as the supreme power!

The Janjira Campaign

The Siddis of Janjira, African-descended Mughal Sardars, had long troubled the Marathas. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Peshwa Moropant, and Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj had all fought but failed to capture their island fort. After Chhatrapati Sambhaji’s death, they gained control of much of the Konkan, including former Maratha capital Raigad. Over 44 years, they imposed religious taxes and persecuted Hindus.

In 1733, Chhatrapati Shahu planned a campaign and sent Peshwa Bajirao, Shripatrao Pant Pratinidhi, and Sarkhel Sekhoji Angre. They captured the forts of Tale, Ghosale, Avchitgad, Bankot, Mandangad and Danda Rajpuri. Soon, they recaptured Raigad; and an emotional Shahu regained his childhood home and the Samadhi of Chhatrapati Shivaji!

Soon, the British sent help to the Siddis, and Maratha Admiral Sekhoji died suddenly. These setbacks, along with the Konkan monsoon, made Bajirao withdraw the campaign. However, he succeeded in appointing a new Siddi at Janjira who was favorable to the Marathas. In later years, with Bajirao in the north, the powerful Siddi Sat rebelled. In a fierce battle in 1736, Chimaji Appa killed Siddi Sat and his 1300 men. The Siddis finally became Maratha vassals.

Consolidating Administrative Measures

To focus on Delhi, Bajirao knew it was important to have a strong northern base. Hence, he sent Chimaji Appa and handpicked Sardars to establish a competent administration. The Sardars defeated Sawai Raja Jaisingh at Mandsaur (1732), and Muzaffar Khan at Sironj (1734).

Malwa, the largest Indian province, was divided between Malharrao Holkar at Indore, Ranoji Shinde at Ujjain, and the Pawars at Dhar. Govindpant Kher was appointed to govern the Bundelkhand province and maintain the Bundela alliance, becoming known as Govindpant ‘Bundele’.

We can see the Peshwa’s administrative vision through these measures which brought peace, prosperity, and stability to the newly-won provinces.

Diplomacy in Rajputana

The Mughal court contained two factions. One, led by Wazir Qamruddin Khan and the Rajputs advocated peace with the Marathas. The other, led by Mughal noblemen demanded war. Hence, in 1736, Peshwa Bajirao visited Rajputana to discuss terms.

*Portrait of Raja of Jaipur and Maharana of Udaipur; Source: The Era of Bajirao, Dr. Uday Kulkarni*

In Udaipur, Maharana Jagat Singh II gave him a grand welcome and led him to a golden throne beside his own. But to everyone’s surprise, Bajirao sat down on the cushioned silver step below it. When asked why, his answer is an excellent example of diplomatic brilliance.

“I am merely a Prime Minister; the Chhatrapati sits on the throne, and my place is at his feet. Moreover, the accompanying throne is of your ancestor Maharana Pratap! The Sisodias never accepted the Mughals as their masters, so you are worthy of the same status as the Chhatrapati.”

Overjoyed, Jagat Singh sat down next to him. Paying the Peshwa a grand tribute he promised friendship. The Sisodias did not oppose the Marathas for several decades. However, in Jaipur, when Sawai Jaisingh made similar arrangements, Bajirao easily sat on the throne. When Jaisingh asked why, he said, “The Kachchwahas of Jaipur are servants of the Mughals since a century, and have sold their daughters to the Paatshah.” Thus shamed; Jaisingh paid a tribute, and agreed to persuade the Paatshah.

The Rajputs strongly argued in favor of accepting Maratha demands; however, Muhammad Shah refused. It would cost him dearly.

Battle of Delhi

At the end of 1736, Bajirao set out from Pune with an army of 50,000. In Malwa, he was joined by Holkar and Shinde; together they collected the Malwa revenue, while Pilaji Jadhavrao did the same in Bundelkhand. In February 1737, the Marathas reached the Yamuna River, and Malharrao Holkar crossed it with an advance force of 10,000.

*L-R: Khan Dauran, Wazir Qamruddin Khan, Muzaffar Khan; Source: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (The Era of Bajirao Book)*

Alarmed, the Mughals sent huge armies led by Saadat Khan, Khan Dauran, Muhammad Khan Bangash, and the Wazir, totaling 1.5 lakh soldiers. Unaware, Malharrao found himself facing Saadat Khan with 50,000 men, and had to retreat. Saadat Khan thought he had defeated the entire Maratha army, and wrote to the Emperor accordingly. Soon, Khan Dauran and Bangash joined him at Agra for celebrations! The Wazir was also close by, and now two huge armies lay in between Peshwa Bajirao and Delhi. What would he do?

Through a narrow forest path, Bajirao led his forces between the two armies straight to Delhi and laid it under siege!

The terrified Mughal Emperor hid in the Red Fort, while Govind Patwardhan easily defeated the remaining army in Delhi. Bajirao could have ravaged Delhi, but that would have broken diplomatic cords. So, Bajirao did not harm the citizens. The Emperor finally agreed to all demands, and Bajirao returned victorious. Delhi had been defeated!

Battle of Bhopal

The Mughal prestige was completely shattered, its weakness exposed to the world. Desperate, the Paatshah called the Nizam with a mighty army to Delhi, made peace, and offered him Malwa in return for defeating Bajirao. A combined elite army of 80,000 marched south with powerful cannons. The Nizam also called his son Nasir Jung from Hyderabad with more men.

Undeterred, Peshwa Bajirao called his banners and marched north with Malharrao Holkar, Ranoji Shinde, Pilaji Jadhavrao, Yashwantrao Pawar and 80,000 cavalry. Chimaji Appa stayed behind to block Nasir’s army, while Raghuji Bhonsle delayed Nasir by guerrilla warfare.

The Nizam heard of Bajirao’s approach, and took shelter in Bhopal Fort. The Peshwa besieged Bhopal, and began to starve out the enemy. When they tried to leave in a Square formation, the Marathas harassed them with guerrilla tactics while avoiding their cannons. Soon, they ran out of food, and in January 1738, the Nizam surrendered.

The Mughals signed a treaty accepting Malwa as part of the Maratha Empire, and the Maratha rights to collect revenue from the Narmada to the Yamuna River. The Nizam swore upon the Quran to never again fight against them. The Marathas turned to the Konkan for a long-pending war with the Portuguese.

Nadir Shah’s Invasion- Hindu-Pat-Paatshahi?

Hearing of the Mughals’ weakness, Nadir Shah of Iran invaded India in 1739. Defeating the helpless Mughals, his looting, raping, burning hordes destroyed Delhi and imprisoned the Emperor. Horrified, all eyes turned to the most powerful man in the Subcontinent- Peshwa Bajirao. However, the majority of the Maratha army was engaged in heavy war with the Portuguese, so he was forced to wait at Burhanpur with a small force.

Many thought if the Mughal Emperor died, a Hindu could become Paatshah of Delhi. But Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj had no desire to sit on the Delhi throne, as per his promise to Aurangzeb. The Rajputs suggested their most noble Maharana of Udaipur should take Delhi, but all knew that Peshwa Bajirao would be the real power behind the throne.

But before they could initiate this, Nadir Shah reinstated Muhammad Shah as Emperor and left with billions in looted treasure. Shahu Maharaj counseled Peshwa Bajirao to continue the Mughal Emperor as a puppet to preserve peace for the time being, while taking the administration in his own hands.

Battle of Vasai

The Portuguese had ruled parts of the Konkan for 200 years, perpetrating horrors and converting people by force. In 1737, Chimaji Appa began a massive liberation campaign and took Thane Fort, Belapur, Dharavi, and Revdanda.

*Statue of Sardar Chimaji Appa Bhat, brother of Peshwa Bajirao, at Vasai Fort which he won from the Portuguese*

After defeating the Nizam, all the Maratha forces converged at Vasai Fort, which the Portuguese had defended against 3 attacks. In 1739, finally, at the cost of thousands of Maratha lives, Vasai fell. The Portuguese surrendered and left for Goa, their last remaining territory. Konkan was free at last!

Sunset at Narmada

Thus by 1740, the Maratha Empire stretched from Gujarat (west) to Gondwana (east), and Thanjavur and Srirangpatnam (south) to the Yamuna River (north). In 20 years, Peshwa Bajirao had fought 41 major battles without losing a single one; and expanded it from 4-5 districts to covering 30% of India in 20 years.

*Source: Untold History Marathi (YouTube)*

However, in his last year, Bajirao faced household opposition due to his unorthodox habits (meat, alcohol consumption), and his closeness to Mastani, adding to his stress. After defeating Nasir Jung, he fell ill. Exhausted beyond measure physically and mentally, the Great Peshwa breathed his last at Raverkhedi. As Sir Richard Temple describes, “He died as he lived, in camp under canvas among his men, and is remembered to this day among the Marathas as the fighting Peshwa and the incarnation of Hindu energy.”

He left behind a confident, competent generation of leaders, and an unfinished dream of flying the Maratha flag at Attock. His sons and nephew accomplished it, and for 70 years the Marathas remained Masters of the Subcontinent!

– Ashutosh Dixit

References:

The Era of Bajirao- Dr. Uday Kulkarni
New History of the Marathas- G.S. Sardesai
Peshwa Bajirao I and the Maratha Expansion- Prof. V.G. Dighe

Posted on April 17, 2021April 17, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 9 Comments

Peshwa Bajirao Ballal, Part 1: The Great Maratha Expansion

Statue of Peshwa Bajirao I; Image Source: Amit20081980, CC BY-SA 3.0

301 years ago, on 17^th April 1720, this man became the Prime Minister or Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. In 20 years, he substantially and irrevocably changed the political and cultural map of the Indian Subcontinent. The legacy of this man would define the next half a century in India, and his achievements would become legend. This man was Peshwa Bajirao Ballal Bhat.

In this article, we look at his incredible achievements, to better understand why he is counted among the foremost military commanders and empire-builders in the Indian Subcontinent.

Appointment as Peshwa

In April 1720, Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj, the Maratha Emperor faced a problem.

Only the previous year, his experienced Prime Minister, Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath Bhat had returned from Delhi. He had secured from the Mughals the independence of the Maratha Swarajya, the release of the Chhatrapati’s mother and wife, and the rights to collect taxes from the 6 Deccan provinces. But now, Balaji had passed away. The fledgling Maratha Empire still faced many internal and external enemies, and the Chhatrapati knew he needed a dynamic young leader to consolidate his power and defeat them.

Dramatic representation of Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj appointing Peshwa Bajirao I — *Dramatic representation of Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj and Peshwa Bajirao I*

It was then that he was reminded of Balaji’s charismatic elder son, Bajirao Ballal Bhat, renowned as a warrior. Bajirao had accompanied his father to Delhi, fought against the Mughals and protected Shahu’s family. He was barely 19 years old, but Shahu Maharaj had an eye for talent. Accordingly, on 17^th April, Chhatrapati Shahu appointed Bajirao as his new Peshwa; a decision that would alter the fate of the Subcontinent.

The Challenges

Peshwa Bajirao Ballal ascended to his Seat, supported by his experienced mother Radhabai, his loving wife Kashibai, and his ever-loyal younger brother Chimaji Appa. However, he had several problems to face.

The Uncooperative Ministers

The decision to appoint a 19-year old ‘boy’ as Prime Minister did not sit well with senior ministers such as the Pratinidhi (Viceroy), Mantri (Interior Minister) and Sumant (Foreign Minister). Bajirao soon realized they wouldn’t support him; and found their policies too cautious and defensive. However, Bajirao had grown up listening to the heroic exploits of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, and longed to fulfill his dream of Hindavi Swarajya.

Numerous Powerful Enemies

The Marathas had won their independence, but were still surrounded by enemies. On the west coast, the Portuguese controlled vast parts of the Konkan and Goa, perpetrating forceful conversions on people. The Siddis troubled the Marathas from Janjira, and the British from Bombay. To the east, Nizam ul-Mulk refused to let them collect the taxes as agreed; while in the north, the declining Mughal Empire still had vast resources. Worse, Raja Sambhaji II of Kolhapur, cousin of Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj, wanted to usurp the senior throne and become Chhatrapati himself!

Decentralized Maratha Power

After the death of Aurangzeb, the Marathas had grown very powerful. However, the individual Maratha sardars were quite autonomous, and apart from the taxes and armies supplied to the Empire, thought mainly about their benefit. They needed a strong, uniform, centralized leadership which the aging Chhatrapati couldn’t provide.

Military Leadership and Reforms

Addressing these challenges, he gathered around him a number of young warriors- his brother Chimaji Appa, Fateh Sinh Bhonsale (the Chhatrapati’s adopted son), Malharrao Holkar, Ranoji Shinde, Udaji Pawar and his brothers. He also earned the support of the veterans Ambajipant Purandare and Pilaji Jadhavrao, the Army Commander, Senapati Khanderao Dabhade, and the Navy Admiral, Sarkhel Kanhoji Angre.

(L-R) Raja Fateh Sinh Bhonsale, Chimaji Appa Bhat, Malharrao Holkar, Ranoji Shinde, Ambajipant Purandare, Pilaji Jadhavrao (Bajirao's inner circle); and Senapati Khanderao Dabhade and Sarkhel Kanhoji Angre, his cooperative colleagues in the Pradhan Mandal — (L-R) Raja Fateh Sinh Bhonsale, Chimaji Appa Bhat, Malharrao Holkar, Ranoji Shinde, Ambajipant Purandare, Pilaji Jadhavrao (Bajirao’s inner circle); and Senapati Khanderao Dabhade and Sarkhel Kanhoji Angre, his cooperative colleagues in the Pradhan Mandal; Image credits to respective artists

Taking charge of the Empire’s central military, Bajirao trained them with discipline and rigor, making them a force to be reckoned with. Having studied their enemies, he knew their cannons and artillery were far superior to the Marathas. Hence, he decided to focus on the cavalry division and carry out guerrilla warfare which was their traditional expertise. He introduced several reforms to his troops:

His army carried 3 horses between each 2 men, of which one was always without any load. This ensured that if one horse got tired, they would immediately replace it with the free horse, and allow the tired one to run unburdened. This allowed them to cover very long distances with lightning speed, only stopping when the riders themselves had to sleep.
He ensured that they traveled light, carrying nothing but their weapons and light armor. The troops lived off the land, hunting in the forests, buying food from farmers, or looting enemy supplies. Sometimes, they even left their tents behind for speed and slept upon their saddles!
He trained his troops to always trap the enemy at a location favorable to them. There, they would cut off the enemy’s food and water supply, bringing even the toughest army to its knees!

Early Years

In his very first year he assisted Kanhoji Angre in defeating the British fleet; while in 1724, he helped the rebel Nizam ul-Mulk to defeat Mughal forces. Since his visit to Delhi, Peshwa Bajirao had observed the weakness and decadence of the Mughals. Now, he knew the time was right to go on the offensive.

*Shrimant Peshwa Bajirao I, Prime Minister of the Maratha Empire; Image Source: Amit20081980, CC BY-SA 4.0*

One day, in a meeting of all the ministers at court, Bajirao thunderously declared his grand vision:

“The (Mughal) paatshahi is weak, has no life left in it…Give us the order! I will bring armies and treasures and place them at the feet of the swami (Chhatrapati). I will counter the Nizam (in South India) and campaign in Hindustan (North India) as well! The Thorle Maharaj (Chhatrapati Shivaji) wished to capture Hindustan; that remains incomplete. It is for this purpose that swami has risen to power.
Strike! Strike at the trunk of the withering tree and the branches will fall off themselves. Listen but to my counsel; and I shall plant the Maratha flag on the walls of Attock!”

Hearing this, Shahu Maharaj exclaimed, “With such men in my service, I can take the boundaries beyond the Himalayas!” And so they set out to create the Hindavi Swarajya of Chhatrapati Shivaji’s dreams!

The Karnataka Campaigns

In 1725, Peshwa Bajirao led his first successful expedition into the Karnatak along with Fateh Sinh Bhonsale, the Senapati, and Shripatrao Pant Pratinidhi. The Marathas proceeded via Bijapur to Chitaldurg, collecting their taxes, renewing their alliances, and defeating those who opposed them. Also, Fateh Sinh took some forces to Thanjavur (in Tamil Nadu) where ruled the Chhatrapati’s cousin Raja Sharfoji Bhonsale, and renewed their old alliance.

The next year Bajirao campaigned south again, reaching as far as Srirangapatnam, created alliances with the Nawabs of Bednur and Arcot, resolving their disputes with Raja Sharfoji and establishing peace. However, before he could proceed further, he received an urgent summons from his Emperor.

Taking advantage of the Maratha army’s absence, Nizam-ul-Mulk had supported Sambhaji II of Kolhapur and marched against Shahu Maharaj. Of course, his actual goal was to destroy Shahu and appoint Sambhaji II as his own puppet! But just when all seemed lost, Bajirao returned. Sending Chimaji Appa with Shahu Maharaj to the safety of Purandar fort, Peshwa Bajirao Ballal then rode into battle.

The Battle of Palkhed

The Nizam, Sambhaji II and their armies began ravaging Pune and adjoining areas. Here, the Nizam arranged Sambhaji’s marriage and announced him as the new Chhatrapati! With his powerful cannons he began capturing nearby forts. By attacking Bajirao’s home, the Nizam wanted to bring him into open confrontation. After all, if a man’s home was attacked, wouldn’t he rush to defend it?

Instead, Bajirao set out with his trusted Sardars- Holkar, Shinde, Pawar, Somvanshi- and a pure cavalry force. Using guerrilla tactics, he plundered the Nizam’s territory at Jalna and Sindkhed, defeating Aiwaz Khan. Then ravaging through the Varhad region, he crossed Khandesh with lightning speed and reached Gujarat! Here, he encouraged the Mughal Subhedar to attack the Nizam! Then, he spread a rumor that he would attack the Nizam’s wealthy cities of Burhanpur and Aurangabad. The Nizam fell prey to the same tactic he had tried to use- he abandoned his campaign and returned to protect his home!

Battle of Palkhed: Movements of Nizam ul-Mulk and Peshwa Bajirao I; Image Source: Mahusha, CC BY-SA 4.0 — *Battle of Palkhed: Movements of Nizam ul-Mulk and Peshwa Bajirao I*; *Image Source: Mahusha, CC BY-SA 4.0*

The Nizam Surrenders

*Nizam ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I, 1st Nizam of Hyderabad*

With his immense speed, Bajirao was covering 3 times the distance of the Nizam. So, the Nizam left his heavy cannons and supplies behind to increase his speed. This was exactly what Bajirao had been waiting for! With deadly speed, he trapped the Nizam at Palkhed in February 1728. With no food, no water, no cannons, the Nizam was helpless. The Maratha cavalry continuously circled his camp from the thick forests, killing anyone who tried to escape.

Within a week, the Nizam surrendered, and signed the Treaty of Mungi-Shevgaon. In it, he agreed to accept Shahu Maharaj as the Chhatrapati of the Marathas, withdraw his support to Sambhaji II, restore all the captured land, and faithfully pay the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi taxes of the six Deccan provinces to Shahu Maharaj. Thus, Peshwa Bajirao defeated the Nizam, a wily strategist who was 30 years older and had been trained by Aurangzeb himself!

Consequently, eminent Indian historian Sir Jadunath Sarkar called Bajirao a ‘heaven-born cavalry leader’ for these tactics. British Field Marshall Bernard Montgomery called the Battle of Palkhed ‘a masterpiece of strategic mobility’, and used similar tactics to defeat Nazi German forces in 1942!

The Battle of Amjhera

In the same year, Bajirao sent his brother Chimaji Appa, along with Malharrao Holkar and Udaji Pawar into the rich province of Malwa (modern Madhya Pradesh). However, the veteran Rajput Giridhar Bahadur, Mughal Subhedar, moved to oppose Chimaji along with his brother Daya Bahadur. The Mughal forces expected the Marathas to take a direct route over Tanda ghat; however, Chimaji crossed through an eastern route and surprised them at Amjhera.

In a long, fierce battle, the Bahadur brothers and their army was destroyed. Shock waves reverberated throughout the Mughal Empire, as one by one, the local lords of Malwa began accepting Maratha rule. At this very time, Peshwa Bajirao received a plea for help that would change his life!

The Battle of Jaitpur- Bundelkhand Campaign

In 1672, a young Bundela Rajput nobleman, Chhatrasal had visited Shivaji Maharaj seeking employment. Instead, Shivaji Maharaj had inspired Chhatrasal to fight the Mughals and raise his own Swarajya in Bundelkhand (part of Uttar Pradesh), and promised his help. Over 55 years, Chhatrasal created and successfully defended his kingdom. But in 1729, the old king approaching age 80 was finally captured by Mughal Subhedar Muhammad Khan Bangash. Desperately, he asked for help from the Maratha Peshwa.

Without a thought for personal benefit, Peshwa Bajirao led his armies over 500 kilometers through hilly, unfrequented paths to reach an escaped Raja Chhatrasal. Together, their forces marched through such an unknown route that Bangash didn’t even know until they were just 20 km away! Hurriedly, Bangash started defending Jaitpur Fort, and called his son Qaim Khan with an army of 30,000 more to join him.

Alliance with Bundela Rajputs

It was no use. The Marathas and Bundelas defeated Qaim Khan and besieged Jaitpur. As the summer heat increased and food ran out, the Mughal soldiers began starving so badly that they began killing and eating their horses. Soon, the soldiers abandoned Bangash, and he was forced to surrender, sign a treaty and swear an oath to never again attack Bundelkhand.

*Maharaja Chhatrasal I and his daughter, Mastani (2nd Image Source: Raja Dinkar Kelkar Museum, CC BY-SA 4.0*

Raja Chhatrasal was overjoyed! And so, amid great celebration, he declared Bajirao as his third son and gave him one-third of his kingdom as a gift. Additionally, he also asked Bajirao to marry his favorite daughter- Mastani, born of a Muslim concubine. Contrary to popular tales, the marriage was a politically arranged alliance. It gave the Bundelas a powerful protector; while to the Marathas, it gave a firm base in North India to plan campaigns against the ultimate target- Delhi!

Deep Singh’s Diplomatic Mission

The next year, Shahu Maharaj himself led an army against Sambhaji II, and forced him to surrender. Magnanimously, he allowed Sambhaji to keep his kingdom of Kolhapur and title himself Chhatrapati so long as he acknowledged Shahu’s supremacy. Soon, the two cousins became allies.

Thus by 1730, the Marathas had risen to great power, resolved major internal differences, and inflicted great defeats to the Mughals. Worried, the court of Delhi decided to send a diplomatic mission led by Rajput envoy Deep Singh of Jaipur to the Deccan, to meet the Marathas and ascertain their demands. When he visited the Nizam, their recorded conversation gives a great insight about Bajirao’s stature!

Nizam: Whom do you find worthy of trust and respect at Satara? Who commands the Raja’s confidence?
Deep Singh: Of course Bajirao! No one else at Shahu’s court can equal Bajirao in valor, integrity, diplomatic talent, or organizational capacity. He is the man who pre-eminently rules the Maratha court…his army trusts him as a superior personality.

At 30 years, Bajirao had thus already proved his capabilities throughout India. Now, he was planning his next move to make the Marathas the supreme power in the Subcontinent!

So what happened next? Find out in Part 2 on Peshwa Bajirao, coming soon!

– Ashutosh Dixit

References:

The Era of Bajirao- Dr. Uday Kulkarni
New History of the Marathas- G.S. Sardesai
Peshwa Bajirao I and the Maratha Expansion- Prof. V.G. Dighe

Posted on March 20, 2021April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 4 Comments

Extraordinary Women of the Maratha Empire- Women’s Day Special, Part 2

Rani Laxmibai, Rebel Queen, Reviver of the Maratha Empire

In Indian history, we can find thousands of examples of powerful, dynamic women leaders who shaped the destiny of this ancient land. But in the Middle and Early Modern age there were fewer examples; and even those who wielded power through their husband’s or son’s position had to navigate a minefield of social barriers. Among rulers of Central Asian and Turkish descent, this trend was even more restrictive. However, with the rise of the Marathas- a martial society in which members of all castes and classes were adept at war- and the egalitarian Sikhs, women began to wield more direct power. In Part 1 of this Women’s Day Special, we saw the stories of Rajmata Jijabai, Maharani Yesubai, Maharani Tarabai, and Peshwin Radhabai, who all played important roles in the foundation and expansion of the Maratha Empire. Continuing this narrative, we take a look at 4 more extraordinary women who played pivotal roles in history.

‘Sarsenapati’ Umabai Dabhade

Umabai was the daughter of Devrao Thoke Deshmukh of Abhone. Her marriage to Sardar Khanderao Dabhade brought her into the spotlight. Over a period from 1705 to 1716, the valiant Khanderao captured most of Gujarat from the Mughals. Proficient in warfare, Umabai managed their territory of Talegaon by herself and successfully defeated invading forces. Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath advised Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj to appoint Khanderao as Sarsenapati (Commander-in-Chief) of the Maratha Empire. In 1719, Sarsenapati Dabhade led the army to Delhi along with Peshwa Balaji and his son Bajirao; and forced the Mughals to formally accept Maratha independence.

In 1729, Khanderao passed away of illness, and Shahu Maharaj appointed his son Trimbakrao as the Commander. At this time, with a view to strengthening central power, Peshwa Bajirao asked Trimbakrao to share half of the revenue of Gujarat with the central treasury and formally bring it under central authority. However, Umabai viewed this as the Peshwa’s trick to take over their province, and advised her son to refuse. Negotiations failed; and sensing an opportunity, the Nizam of Hyderabad and Mughal officer Muhammad Bangash instigated Trimbakrao to rebel against Bajirao with their support.

The First Woman Commander-in-Chief in Indian History

This led to the Battle of Dabhoi between the Senapati and the Peshwa in 1731, during which Trimbakrao accidentally died of a stray bullet. Furious, Umabai and her deputy Gaekwad led an army to avenge him. The Chhatrapati then personally intervened to make peace between his two ministers. Umabai agreed to pay the revenue, and her younger son Yashwantrao was appointed Senapati. However, Yashwantrao was weak and addicted to opium; so Umabai herself administered Gujarat and carried out the duties of the Sarsenapati for over 20 years. She defeated the Mughals in a major battle in 1732. Hence, she has been hailed as the ‘first woman Commander-in-Chief in Indian history’.

However, she never actually paid the full agreed amount; and considering she was a widow who had lost her eldest son, Shahu Maharaj was hesitant to demand it from her. After his death, the Empire was facing financial troubles, so Peshwa Nanasaheb demanded the revenue she owed. She refused and allied with Maharani Tarabai who had seized power from her grandson the Chhatrapati. The armies of the two women attacked Pune while the Peshwa was away, but were resisted by his grandmother Radhabai. Nanasaheb returned and defeated Umabai’s army. Her deputy Damaji Gaekwad accepted the Peshwa’s terms and was made Subhedar of Gujarat, while the rebel Umabai and her family were stripped of their power and left with an empty title. In 1753, Umabai passed away, and with her ended the glory of the House of Sarsenapati Dabhade.

Subhedar ‘Devi’ Ahilyabai Holkar

Ahilyabai Holkar (1725-1795 CE) is one of the most revered figures in Indian history. Born to Mankoji Shinde, a prominent member of the Dhangar (shepherd) community, she learnt to read and write early, and was a great devotee of Shiva. When she was 8, the Subhedar of Malwa, Malharrao Holkar saw her feeding the poor in a temple. Impressed with her piety and intelligence, he wedded her to his son Khanderao. She grew up to take charge of the Holkar household; however, tragedy struck when her husband was killed in battle. Bereft of his son, Malharrao began to depend on Ahilyabai to administer and defend the province in his absence. After his death in 1765, her adolescent son Malerao became Subhedar while she effectively ruled as Regent, but even he passed away of illness in two years.

*Statue of Ahilyabai Holkar in Maheshwar Fort, her capital; Image Source*

In those times it was custom for only male heirs to succeed to the family position; however, Ahilyabai petitioned the Peshwa to appoint her as the Subhedar. Despite opposition from many, the young Peshwa Madhavrao I recognizing her abilities, declared her as Subhedar of Malwa in her own right, rather than on behalf of a male family member. This decision would change the fortunes of Malwa!

Ahilyabai established a competent, progressive administration and appointed Tukojirao Holkar, a distant relation, as head of military. While Tukojirao worked with Mahadji Shinde and Peshwa Madhavrao to recapture Delhi and North India, Ahilyabai led armies against plundering raiders with four bows and quivers of arrows fitted to her elephant’s howdah. But it was with her intelligence and compassion that she cemented her position.

The Saintly Noblewoman

Building many forts and roads she promoted trade and made Maheshwar her capital, establishing a new textile industry of the famed Maheshwari sarees. She developed Indore into a major cultural and economic center where artists and merchants flourished under her patronage. She held audience every day, listening to and addressing her subjects’ problems. Realizing that the tribals raiding her territory were lacking income; she allotted some unoccupied hilly land for them to settle down, allowed them to collect a small tax from travelers, and their raids stopped! She also contributed to the construction and maintenance of hundreds of temples across India, building temples at some of the holiest Hindu sites like Kashi, Somnath, Ayodhya, Mathura, Haridwar, Rameshwar, Dwarka, and Jagannathpuri. Famously, she rebuilt the sacred Kashi Vishwanath Shiva temple (on an adjacent site), which had been destroyed and converted into a mosque by Aurangzeb over 100 years ago!

*Kashi Vishwanath Temple, Varanasi; built by Ahilyabai Holkar*

Through her words as well as actions, she spread the message of Dharma across India. One of the few women to rule directly in pre-British India, she created a peaceful and prosperous Central India in a turbulent era of the Maratha Empire. Today, she is seen as an embodiment of female capability and even worshipped in some places as ‘Devi’ or Saint for her noble work!

*Stamp of Ahilyabai Holkar by Indian government in 1996; Image Source*

Rani Laxmibai

In 1818, the East India Company defeated the Maratha Empire in the 3rd Anglo-Maratha War. The British exiled Peshwa Bajirao II to Bithur (UP), abolished his Pune Seat, and reduced the Chhatrapati to a mere Raja of Satara. The Maratha Empire lost, and India came under British rule. As Bajirao II settled down in Bithur, he grew fond of little Manikarnika, daughter of his Brahmin clerk Moropant Tambe, and treated her as his own daughter. She learned reading, writing, as well as horseriding, swordplay, and archery with the Peshwa’s adopted son Nanasaheb II and their friend Tatya Tope. At this time, the local Sardars of the Maratha Empire had become titular Maharajas, but in reality were ruled by the British. 14-yr old Manikarnika married such a Maharaja, Gangadharrao Newalkar of Jhansi, and took the name Laxmibai.

She gave birth to a son who died in four months. The royal couple adopted a baby in 1853 and named him Damodar; but soon after, the Maharaja died. The infant became King and Laxmibai ruled as his Regent. However, the British applied the Doctrine of Lapse, which disinherited all adopted royal children and annexed Jhansi, ordering Laxmibai to vacate her palace. She famously cried out, “Meri Jhansi nahi doongi!” But by March 1854, the British, giving Rs 60000 annual pension, forced her to leave.

The Rebel Queen

*Jhansi Fort (Uttar Pradesh), part of the erstwhile Maratha Empire*

In May 1857, the Sepoy Rebellion began and soon the fire spread everywhere. The rebels seized Jhansi Fort, massacred all Englishmen, and took a hefty ransom from Laxmibai to leave. With no British officers left, Laxmibai reassumed the government and fought off neighboring kingdoms trying to take advantage of the chaos. She repeatedly asked the British for reinforcements but none arrived; so she set up a foundry to cast cannons, and raised an army of Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, men and women from all castes. Till January 1858, Jhansi was at peace under its Queen.

Then the British arrived and demanded surrender. Laxmibai refused, and the Siege of Jhansi began. She sent letters to Peshwa Nanasaheb II, Tatya Tope, and Nawab Ali Bahadur II (great-grandson of Bajirao I). Tatya Tope arrived with an army to rescue her, but a traitor let the British inside the fort. That night, Laxmibai jumped from the walls with Damodar at her back and joined Tatya; while her female lieutenant Jhalkaribai distracted the British in disguise. The rebels made their way to Gwalior, declared Nanasaheb II as Peshwa of a revived Maratha Empire, and swore to regain Swarajya.

*Statue of Rani Laxmibai with Damodar Rao on horseback, Pune*

However, against her advice the rebel leaders separated, and the British seized the opportunity to attack Gwalior. On 17 June, the British broke through Laxmibai’s army, slaughtering 8000 people. Laxmibai fought till the very end till, wounded and exhausted, she passed away in glory. Even the British couldn’t help but admire her, with Colonel Rose calling her ‘the most dangerous of all Indian leaders’. Rani Laxmibai became a symbol- of nationalism, independence, and the power and courage of women; inspiring all later freedom fighters. She will forever be immortalized as one of India’s greatest heroes, subject of statues, literature… and dreams.

*Stamp of Rani Laxmibai issued by Indian government in 1957, to celebrate centenary of the 1857 Rebellion; Image Source*

Jhalkaribai

She had no title, no position or hereditary right. Neither was she a relative of anyone important. She came from a humble north Indian Dalit family, but achieved renown in Indian and Maratha history by her courage and sacrifice. She was Jhalkaribai.

Born to Sadoba Singh and Jamunadevi of the Kori community in Bhojla near Jhansi, Jhalkaribai received no formal education. However, she learned horseback riding, as well as handling weapon early on. She displayed great courage in childhood, killing a leopard with an axe and fighting off robbers in her village. She was married to Puran Singh, a great wrestler and soldier from Jhansi and during a festival, caught the eye of Rani Laxmibai, who observed how similar they looked. Finding out more about Jhalkaribai’s bravery, she inducted her into the women’s wing of her army. Soon, the Brahmin queen and the Dalit warrior lady struck up a friendship, and Puran Singh and Jhalkaribai became Laxmibai’s advisors.

*The storming of Jhansi Fort, by Edward Gilliat*

In 1858, the British laid siege to Jhansi Fort. Laxmibai’s army fought a bloody battle for months, with Puran Singh as an infantry lieutenant and Jhalkaribai commanding cannons. However, a traitor let the British into the fort, and a massacre started. Laxmibai prepared to escape the fort so she could continue the rebellion; but Jhalkaribai knew it was difficult unless she distracted the British. Quickly, she dressed in Laxmibai’s clothes and battlegear; and led a contingent out in disguise. Seeing the Queen’s flag, the British focused on capturing Jhalkaribai, and the real Queen escaped!

Jhalkaribai fought bravely, but eventually had to sue for peace. Even then, acting as Laxmibai, she tried to keep the British engaged in peace talks for the next day, until a defected Jhansi soldier exposed her identity. The British were dumbfounded and awestruck by her courage. Her end is unclear; however, most sources say the British executed her there and then.

*Stamp of Jhalkaribai issued by Indian Government in 2001*; Image Source

Today, she is celebrated as a symbol of empowerment- both for women as well as the oppressed castes-and lives on through numerous statues and stories, as well as a stamp. She was no queen, but remains a ruler of hearts in her native region.

Endnote

These were but a few examples of the intelligence, courage, strength, and sacrifice inherent to women. Without them, history itself is incomplete. If the purpose of learning history is to inspire, it is essential that we celebrate our historical heroines as much as our heroes; and continue on the path of equality and empowerment.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on March 8, 2021April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 4 Comments

Extraordinary Women of the Maratha Empire: Women’s Day Special, Part 1

History has often been told as the story of men. But as those who have delved deep into it will know- history is equally the story of women- powerful, warlike, ambitious, crafty or honorable- women who have shaped the destinies of empires and nations! Just a look at Indian history will reveal thousands of formidable women who have achieved great renown- as leaders, warriors, administrators, influencers, as well as mothers and wives.

The Maratha Empire, which arose in 17^th century western India, and governed most of the Subcontinent in the 18^th century, also gave rise to several extraordinary women. This International Women’s Day, let’s look at some of those who played a key role in Maratha history. These are but a few among many, presented chronologically to properly show their achievements in the context of history. Shall we begin?

Rajmata Jijabai

Rajmata Jijabai (1598 – 1674 CE), also called Jijamata or Jijau, was the mother of the Founder of the Maratha Empire, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. As the chief guiding light of his life and the matriarch of the House of the Bhonsales, she played the greatest role in inspiring him to create the ‘Swarajya’.

In those days, the Deccan was divided between the Sultans- Adil Shah, Nizam Shah, and Qutub Shah, with the Mughal Emperor repeatedly invading from the north. Constantly warring against each other, these rulers perpetrated atrocities upon the common people, destroying temples and dishonoring women while the feudal lords fought for them without any thought of independence. With her innate intelligence, Jijabai, married to the mighty Shahaji Raje Bhonsale, realized that the people needed to be set free from their shackles. She encouraged Shahaji to create his own independent kingdom; however, his attempts resulted in failure due to the shifting loyalties of the Maratha Sardars.

The Woman who gave Birth to the Maratha Empire

Statue of Rajmata Jijabai with the boy-king Shivaji Raje, Founder of the Maratha Empire — *Statue of Rajmata Jijabai with the boy-king Shivaji Raje at his birthplace Shivneri*

Her vision later bore fruit through her son, Shivaji. Born in 1630, he grew up with her as his teacher, philosopher, and guiding light. She raised him lovingly yet firmly, imparting ancient wisdom through the stories of Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Bhagwad Gita. She ensured his education in administration, warfare, and politics inculcating in him the values of self-respect, leadership, unity and compassion.

When Shivaji was 6, Shahaji Raje sent him and Jijabai to his fiefdom in Pune to govern it in his name. Upon reaching Pune, Jijabai found it to be utterly ruined due to the continuous wars. With advice from Shahaji’s deputy Dadoji Konddev, she took up the task of rehabilitating Pune, established the temple of Kasba Ganapati, and reinvigorated trade and farming. She commissioned the construction of the Lal Mahal as her residence, and ensured good governance and military security in the region. Inspiring Shivaji with the vision of Swarajya or ‘self-rule’, she wholeheartedly supported his dreams and ambitions. When his wife died leaving behind 2-year old Sambhaji, Jijabai took up the duty of raising him as well. Thus, she was responsible for raising not one, but two Emperors of the Marathas!

*Rajmata Jijabai with Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, sculpture*

In 1674, she passed away after Shivaji was formally coronated as the ‘Chhatrapati’ of the Maratha Empire. In her lifetime, she fulfilled the dream of Swarajya through her son, rescuing millions of people from slavery and misery. She remains a celebrated and revered icon throughout Maharashtra even to this day!

*Indian postage stamp commemorating Rajmata Jijabai*

Maharani Yesubai

Maharani Yesubai was the wife of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, the 2^nd Emperor of the Marathas. Married at a young age, with her intelligence and steady resilience she soon found favor with her father-in-law Shivaji Maharaj, who considered her a good influence on his son. During her husband’s reign (1681-1689) the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb descended upon the fledgling Maratha Empire with an army of over 6 lakhs, aiming to conquer all of South India. As his wife and confidante, Yesubai counseled Chhatrapati Sambhaji in his administration as well as military plans. Once, Sambhaji Maharaj was devastated after finding out that he had mistakenly put his Royal Secretary or Chitnis, Balaji Awji to death due to a wrong suspicion of treachery. Yesubai advised him to right this wrong by giving the position to Balaji’s son Khando Ballal, who later ended up saving Sambhaji’s life!

*Statue of Yesubai Bhonsale, Maharani of the Maratha Empire*

In 1689, Sambhaji Maharaj was captured and executed by Aurangzeb. When the capital Raigad was besieged, Yesubai took charge even while dealing with her own grief and loss. Realizing that the Kingdom needed a strong leader at this critical juncture, she crowned her husband’s half-brother Rajaram as Chhatrapati instead of her own son who was only 7 years old. She sent Rajaram away to keep him safe, and defended Raigad till it fell. From there, her story got even worse.

Prisoner of the Mughals

For 30 years, from 1689 to 1719, she remained a prisoner of the Mughals. With barely any money and resources, she had to take care of all the family members, officers and servants who had been captured with her. Despite this, she acted with great patience and fortitude. Even though she could not teach her son Shahu to fight in Mughal captivity, she ensured that he became a learned, wise young man. How the former Queen must have lived, surrounded by enemies in a rough, hard, camp?

However, her story does have a happy ending. Her son, who had been released in 1708 and become Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj, sent his Prime Minister, Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath in 1719 to negotiate her release. By now, the Marathas were on the rise, and after 30 years in captivity, Yesubai returned to Maharashtra and reunited with her son. She lived for 11 years more, happy to see her son secure as Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire. Her memory remains in history as a shining example of sacrifice and courage.

*Mural of the Return of Maharani Yesubai and a gratefully kneeling Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj*; Image Source

Maharani Tarabai

Maharani Tarabai (1675-1761) was the wife of Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj, 3^rd Emperor of the Marathas. Being the daughter of Sarsenapati (Commander-in-Chief) Hambirrao Mohite, she learned horse-riding, swordplay, and other skills of warfare at an early age. After Rajaram became the Emperor in 1689, Tarabai supported him in every situation, including the perilous journey from Mughal-occupied Maharashtra to Jinjee, Tamil Nadu; and assisted him in the war, working with his Council of Ministers. In 1700, Rajaram Maharaj passed away at Sinhagad, leaving behind two adolescent sons. Shahu, the true heir to the throne, was still in Mughal captivity. Who would rule the kingdom at this crucial juncture?

It was Tarabai who stepped up, seating her adolescent son Shivaji II on the throne and ruling in his name. Coordinating with the ministers, she personally led attacks and recaptured Maratha fortresses. For 7 years, she successfully continued the War, gaining fame as a warrior-general and an administrator. In 1707, Emperor Aurangzeb died, the Mughals returned north, and Tarabai was celebrated for having won the 27-year long Maratha War of Independence.

After the War

Tarabai was not only valiant, but also shrewd. Upon taking control of the kingdom, she had imprisoned Rajaram’s other wife Rajasbai and her son Sambhaji II. In 1708, when Shahu returned, she denounced him as an impostor and refused to hand over the kingdom. When most of the Sardars allied with him, she retreated to Kolhapur and established her son’s separate kingdom. Shahu accepted this demarcation and crowned himself at Satara. But when she repeatedly failed to make peace, her administrator Ramchandra Pant Amatya released Rajasbai, who seated her son Sambhaji II on the throne and imprisoned Tarabai! Thus, the Queen received a taste of her own medicine.

In 1731, Chhatrapati Shahu obtained her release from prison, and respectfully brought her to Satara. Since he had no sons, he adopted Tarabai’s grandson Rajaram II as his successor, thus making her the founder of the Kolhapur kingdom as well as a matriarch of the Satara kingdom! In 1752, she imprisoned her grandson and conspired to remove Peshwa Nanasaheb who had been appointed for life by Shahu himself. Upon being defeated, she resigned herself to a nominal role in her grandson’s administration, and passed away in 1761. Today, she is remembered as a symbol of female power for her bravery, resistance to the Mughals and founding her own kingdom.

*Statue of Tarabai Bhonsale, Maharani of the Maratha Empire*

Peshwin Radhabai

Radhabai Bhat or Radhabai Peshwa was the wife of Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, and the mother of Peshwa Bajirao I and Chimaji Appa. During her life of over 70 years, she laid the foundation of the Peshwa power and lived to see the Marathas become the supreme power in the Subcontinent.

*Radhabai Peshwa, wife, mother, and grandmother of the Peshwas of the Maratha Empire*

As the wife of Balaji Vishwanath Bhat, a lieutenant and accountant under Sarsenapati Dhanaji Jadhav, Radhabai shared in all his hardships in Mughal-occupied Maharashtra. Their fortunes turned in 1707 when Balaji succeeded in helping Shahu become Chhatrapati at Satara. Even after this, she was once imprisoned along with her entire family by a rebel Sardar, but she showed great fortitude and they were soon rescued by Shahu’s army. Balaji was appointed Prime Minister in 1713, and Radhabai became the matriarch of the new Peshwa family. Seasoned in politics, she ably counseled her husband in taking Maratha power up to Delhi. She encouraged her sons to take part in battles from an early age, ensuring they learnt literature and accounts as well as warfare, politics and administration. It was she who instilled in them the dream of fulfilling Chhatrapati Shivaji’s vision of Hindavi Swarajya!

Mother of ‘The Great Peshwa’

In 1720, upon Balaji’s passing, her elder son Bajirao was appointed Peshwa, and he expanded the Maratha Empire in all directions. Radhabai turned Pune into a great city and paid attention to the people’s welfare as seen when, during a drought, she ordered the wealthy citizens to stop using water in their gardens and instead give it to the poor.

In 1729, Bajirao married Mastanibai, an illegitimate Muslim daughter of King Chhatrasal of Bundelkhand. This was a political alliance to secure his power in Bundelkhand in the north from where he could target Delhi. However, the orthodox section of Brahmins in Pune were outraged and refused to conduct religious ceremonies for the Peshwas. Radhabai brought them in line by threatening to invite priests from Varanasi. While she accepted Mastani as a political necessity and even helped her during her pregnancy, she ensured that her presence caused minimal damage to the Peshwa reputation. In 1735 she made a long pilgrimage to North India, and used the opportunity to cement Bajirao’s new alliances with the Rajputs, Jats, Bundelas and some Muslim Nawabs. This helped Bajirao to soundly defeat the Mughals in the Battle of Delhi in 1737!

In 1752 when Maharani Tarabai and Umbabai Dabhade conspired against her grandson Nanasaheb Peshwa and attacked Pune, it was Radhabai who defended it. When she passed away in 1753, the Marathas had just signed the Ahmadiyya Treaty, by which they became the protectors of the Mughals, and in effect the rulers of India. Though largely forgotten in history, Peshwin Radhabai must be credited with playing a key role in establishing and securing Maratha supremacy!

To Be Continued…

Well, these are just some of the great heroines and inspiring women leaders of the Maratha Empire. Hope you enjoyed their stories! Coming up in Part 2: the Queen who became a Saint, the greatest Rebel Queen in Indian history, and more! Stay tuned…

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on January 16, 2021April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 5 Comments

Shahir Maharshi R. D. Dixit: An Ideal among Shahirs

When it comes to history, we tend to think of it as things that happened in the distant past; things unconnected to our present, apart from the tangled threads that bind space-time causality. But in reality, history is something that happens all around us, all the time. It is always relevant, always present in the shaping of the world we live in. And sometimes, if we are lucky, we get a chance to be intimately connected to it. Such was the chance that I got in early childhood, through my grandfather- Shahir Maharshi R.D. Dixit. Today, on his memorial day, I pay this small tribute to the man who inspired my interest in history, and consequently this blog.

What is a Shahir?

Shahiri is a medieval form of folk music and art from Maharashtra. It involves colorfully dressed Shahirs (bards) and musicians performing the ‘powada’ a form of ballad poetry which usually tells a particular historical or mythological story. Apart from this, Shahirs also perform other local art forms like laavani, phatka, and more.

Shahiri traditions have evolved into some distinct forms, one of them being ‘Rashtriya Shahiri’- which addresses historical personalities and incidents through music, with the aim to inspire a nationalistic fervor in the audience. Harnessing the ‘Veer Rasa’ from among the ‘Navarasas’ or the 9 Aspects of Emotion in Art, it evokes a sentiment of pride and valor by recounting the deeds and lives of heroes.

The shahiri tradition in Maharashtra dates back almost a thousand years, even finding mention in Sant Dnyaneshwar’s work. However, during the times of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, it became a powerful tool to inspire the Marathi populace into fighting for freedom. During British rule, it was again revived by Maharashtrian freedom fighters to exhort the people to resist British tyranny, as well as address the evils prevalent in society. It was during the peak of this movement that, in 1916, a new star was born.

Raghunath Dixit- Early Days

Young Raghunath Dattatray Dixit was born on 4^th June 1916 to a poor Brahmin family in the village of Chinchani near Sangli, Maharashtra. He came from a long line of priests and keertankars, whose traditional job was to inculcate morals in the society through their devotional songs. The family also owned a temple, and was devoted to Lord Dutta, the representation of the Hindu Trinity- Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Growing up, Raghunath inherited all these values.

*Krantishahir Ganesh D. Dixit, elder brother of Raghunath*

Losing his father at the tender age of 4, he was raised by his elder brother Ganesh. As the freedom movement gained momentum in the ‘20s, Ganesh Dixit took up the Shahiri art and began performing in shows across Maharashtra. Raghunath, acting as a companion and assistant, also began to learn the art of shahiri. Soon he started writing and singing his own compositions, gaining fame as ‘Chhota Dixit’.

Krantishahir R. D. Dixit and the Freedom Struggle

Roaming the countryside, the brothers roused the masses with their fiery music, exhorting them to fight against the British rule. They sang about Bhagat Singh and Queen Laxmibai of Jhansi, and others who had spent their lives fighting the British. They sang of the valiant Marathas such as Tanhaji Malusare, Baji Prabhu Deshpande, Netaji Palkar, Chimaji Appa, and others who had driven invading forces of the Mughals and the Portuguese out of Maharashtra. Above all, they sang of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, the great founder of the Maratha Empire and the ideals of Swarajya. Soon, they found a mentor in Maharshi Nyayratna Vinod– philosopher, spiritual seeker and freedom fighter, companion of Bhagat Singh and Chandrashekhar Azad. Under his philosophical and spiritual guidance, the Dixit brothers flourished.

*Maharshi Nyayratna Vinod, mentor to Shahir Dixit*

Their crusade of verses soon came to the notice of the British. They imprisoned them several times to stop their shows from reaching the people and inciting them to rebellion. However, the brothers and their companions would continue their program as planned. Appreciating their efforts towards the Freedom Struggle, Nyayratna Vinod bequeathed to them the title of ‘Krantishahir’ or ‘Bard of the Revolution’!

Not stopping at resisting the British, the brothers also campaigned against the atrocities inflicted by the Nizam of Hyderabad. The Nizam refused to accede to the soon-to-be Republic of India, against the will of his subjects. Despite stringent warnings from the British not to incite the people against the Nizam, the brothers risked arrest and torture to spread awareness among the people living under his tyranny. Ultimately, in 1947, India became an independent country, and a few months later, Hyderabad became a part of it!

The Royal Shahirs

Many of the Princely States in British India invited the brothers to perform at their courts. In Madhya Pradesh, they received commissions from the great Maratha Houses, such as the Holkars of Indore, the Shindes of Gwalior, and the Pawars of Dhar and Dewas. In Karnataka, the Ghorpades of Sondur, while in Gujarat, the Gaekwads of Baroda also regularly invited them to perform. Impressed by Ganesh’s fiery performance, Maharaja of Dewas also named him the Darbar Shahir, or the Royal Bard!

In Maharashtra itself, they received patronage from the Patwardhans of Miraj and Sangli. One of the highlights of their careers came in 1946, when they were invited to compete in a ‘Shahiri’ tournament during the coronation ceremony of Chhatrapati Shahaji Maharaj of Kolhapur. Needless to say, Ganesh won the first place while Raghunath won a joint second!

Shahir Dixit with his companions — *Shahir Raghunath D. Dixit with his companions*

They say that it is when everything seems to be going well, that tragedy strikes. Barely two years had passed since independence, when Krantishahir Ganesh D. Dixit passed away due to a sudden illness! Such misery, Raghunath had never known! His elder brother had been everything to him- father, teacher, friend, and leader. How was he to keep going, bereft of his guiding light? Overcome with grief, he resolved never to perform again, and packed up his daph instrument.

Post-Independence Freedom Movements

At this crucial moment, it was his mentor, Nyayratna Vinod, who consoled and supported him. “Your brother may have passed away, but is his work here done?” He asked. There were still a lot of political and social injustices to fight against. Who would continue this work, if not Raghunath himself?

Resolving to continue his brother’s legacy, Raghunath returned to the Shahiri world. India may have received independence, but that did not mean all was rosy in the country. A huge movement was rearing its head in western India. It sought to divide Bombay State into two distinct states based on language- Maharashtra and Gujarat. Known as the Sanyukta Maharashtra Movement, it was a major political struggle. Even here, Shahir Dixit played a great role, inspiring people to take to the streets with his fiery words. Invoking the proud legacy of Maratha history, he exhorted people to work for the movement. Their efforts bore fruit in 1960 with the creation of the state of Maharashtra.

At the same time, another political struggle was ensuing in the south- one between the Portuguese and the Indians! In Goa, which had been under Portuguese rule for centuries, the people wanted to accede to the Republic, leading to a struggle with the Portuguese colonial authorities. Again, the daph of Shahir Dixit thundered, speaking of the inquisitions and atrocities carried out by the Portuguese, reminding people of the rights of the Goan people. And so, by the end of 1961, Goa was liberated to become a part of India!

Shahir R. D. Dixit and Social Work

Although India had achieved independence and sovereignty, there were still a number of social evils prevalent in the country. Now, Shahir Dixit took up the task of spreading awareness and creating reform among the people.

Travelling across India, he sang verses calling for abolishing caste discrimination, rejecting superstition, and educating the girl child. He warned of the evils of addiction, and exhorted people to live simple, virtuous lives full of good deeds. He campaigned to create awareness and prevent female infanticide, educating the rural populace on the horrors of such a practice. Across most rural and semi-urban areas, his words spread the message of unity, equality, rationalism, and right to education.

In his own village of Chinchani, his influence was quite profound. He brought about many social changes and economic development in the village through his social work and encouragement. To the villagers, he became their beloved ‘Kaka’, a fatherly figure of wisdom, inspiring them with his words and teaching them how to live. In later years, he also rebuilt the dilapidated ancestral temple of his beloved Dutta Guru, and turned it into a community place where the villagers could gather to pray, recite the aartis and listen to the scriptures. The traditions he founded in his village survive to this very day.

Proliferating Shahiri Traditions: The Dixit Gharana of Shahiri

The work of Shahir Dixit did not stop just at political and social campaigns. Over the years, he had also begun to realize the importance of preserving shahiri traditions, and passing them on to the next generations in a rapidly changing world. He began traveling across Maharashtra, gathering many disciples and students. Without seeking any money or compensation, he taught them the very unique style of shahiri developed by his brother and himself, which had come to be known as the Dixit Gharana of Shahiri. Through his many associates, including Shahir Samrat Bapurao Vibhute and others, the Dixit Gharana spread far and wide. Today, there are over 150 disciples of the Dixit Gharana across Maharashtra, performing powadas in the memory of their ‘Guruji’.

As India developed after independence, Shahir Dixit also realized the importance of creating an organization, a union of Shahirs that would protect their interests and promote their art. Towards that end, he traveled the length and breadth of Maharashtra, meeting with shahirs in almost every town and city and convincing them to be a part of this endeavor. Working with other prominent shahirs such as Shahir Yogesh, he founded the ‘Maharashtra Shahir Parishad’ and served as its Vice-President.

In recognition of his momentous achievements in the field of Shahiri, the Maharashtra Shahir Parishad conferred upon him the title of ‘Shahir Maharshi’- a Saint among Shahirs!

Personal Character and Legacy

Shahir Maharshi R. D. Dixit lived to the age of 92, when he still did not require any support to walk. A lifetime of simple living, hard work and travel gave him an iron constitution, which was seen when he was robbed and thrown off a train at the age of 87, but managed to recover fully from severe injuries. His commitment to his art, and his word of honor were legendary. In 1982, when his wife passed away after an illness, he did not cancel an event which was scheduled a couple of days later. However, he performed that day without wearing the traditional pagadi or pheta, as a sign of his mourning. He once performed a powada in honor of renowned historian and writer Shivshahir Babasaheb Purandare, who described his hand hitting the daph as ‘thunder and lightning’!

He passed away in 2007, leaving behind a Gharana of folk music with over 150 disciples, a large family of devoted children and grandchildren, and a legacy of poetry and fiery performances. The recordings of some of his work- powadas such as ‘Shaheed Bhagat Singh’, ‘Shivaji Maharaj Avatari Kase?’ and ‘Raja Prithviraj Chouhan’ are available on YouTube. 2 of his recordings can also be found on the website sounds.bl.uk/world-and-traditional-music/young-india-records-label-collections. After his passing in 2007, his son, my father Kashinath Dixit, started the Shahir Maharshi R. D. Dixit Pratishthan Trust, which organizes programs to promote shahiri arts as well as social causes such as education in rural areas.

*Inauguration of the bronze busts of the Dixit brothers by Hon’ble MP, Sanjay Kaka Patil, and Kashinath Dixit*

In 2016, bronze busts of Krantishahir G. D. Dixit and Shahir Maharshi R. D. Dixit were inaugurated at their ancestral town of Chinchani, at the hands of Hon’ble Member of Parliament, Shri. Sanjay (Kaka) Patil. They stand as a testament to their work, a shining example of selfless Karma Yoga for generations of artistes!

As for me? I was fortunate to spend a significant part of my early life under his wing, inheriting an interest in history, poetry, and patriotism. This blog is a way of continuing his legacy in my own way. I can only hope that when my journey ends, I will have made him proud!

शाहीर महर्षी र. द. दीक्षित ह्यांना शत शत नमन!!

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on October 17, 2020April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 4 Comments

12 Greatest Empires in Indian History- 3. The Satavahana Empire

Pandavleni Caves; Image Source: By Photo Dharma from Sadao, Thailand - 010 Cave 3, Exterior, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=58408349

The history of the Indian Subcontinent has had many glorious chapters over 5000 years of recorded history. In this series of articles, we take a look at some of the greatest empires of the Indian Subcontinent.

The fall of the Maurya Empire, the Iron Age Indian superpower in 180 BCE, gave rise to a number of different dynasties across the subcontinent. In our previous blog, we covered the Kushan Empire that dominated the north after the Mauryas. But what about the south?

After the Mauryan decline, the Deccan plateau region, comprising chiefly of modern-day Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana, was ruled by several tribes, out of which one would soon come to dominate the entire region. The Andhra jatiyas, originating in the Vindhya mountainous ranges, would come together and expand their influence to become the founders of the first Empire of the Deccan- the Satavahana Empire!

3. The Satavahana Empire (100 BCE-25 BCE; revived 60-225 CE)

*The Deccan Plateau; Source: Nichalp, CC BY-SA 3.0*

Bounded by the Western Ghats (Sahyadris) to the west and the Eastern Ghats to the East, with the Vindhya and Satpura mountains separating it from the north, the Deccan is a rocky region, giving rise to hardy people. In the earlier days, Ashoka the Great had ruled here, connecting this region to the rest of the Maurya Empire. But after its fall, its regional leaders became powerful and independent. At that time in history, the Andhras, if they were so-called, were an ethnicity not belonging to one particular region, but probably spread across the Deccan. Hence, it is difficult to prove exactly where the Satavahanas originated. However, in the first century BCE, the Satavahanas founded their empire in this region, which at its height stretched from the borders of Rajasthan to Karnataka; and from Gujarat in the west to Kalinga (Orissa) in the east.

Rise and First Fall

According to the Puranas, the Satavahanas were originally governors under the Kanva dynasty that ruled Pataliputra after the Mauryas and Shungas. Sometime during the first century BCE, Simuka (Srimukha) defeated the Kanvas to establish his own dynasty in his native Deccan. Under Simuka and his brother Kanha (Krishna), the Satavahanas established their capital in Pratishthan i.e. modern-day Paithan, Maharashtra. Due to their control of the two chief ports of Kalyan and Sopara, the Satavahanas began trading with the rising superpower in the west- the Roman Empire! Controlling the important ports as well as the key land routes, the Satavahanas grew wealthy and prosperous.

Simuka’s son, Satakarni I succeeded his uncle Kanha to the throne. Taking advantage of the turmoil caused by Greek invasions of northern India, Satakarni I conquered western Malwa, Anupa (Narmada valley) and Vidarbha. He also married Naganika, the daughter of a powerful local ruler, and thus consolidated his rule. He then proclaimed his sovereignty and imperial status by performed the Vedic Ashvamedha and Rajasuya sacrifices. Queen Naganika was a powerful influence in the empire. She was the first Queen in the Indian Subcontinent to have coins minted in her own name! His son Satakarni II conquered eastern Malwa, thus bringing most of the Southern Highway under Satavahana control. Succeeded by his son and grandson, the Satvahanas thus became known as the Dakshinapathapati- the Lords of the South/Southern Highway.

At this time, however, trouble began on the northern borders in Gujarat, where ruled the Shakas or Westerns Satraps. These were Indo-Scythian noblemen of Iranian descent who ruled parts of western India. Several invasions occurred, during which the Western Satraps conquered territory upto Nashik and Pune. Losing trade routes greatly diminished the Satavahana Empire’s power during the first half of 1^st century CE (AD). The Shaka King Nahapana ruled much of the former Satavahana territory.

Revival and Zenith of the Empire

This changed when a young Gautamiputra Satakarni came to power. Though historians remain divided about his exact reign, the most probable period seems to be 60-85 CE. He began his reign by uniting the scattered forces of the Deccan, and drove back the Shakas. Winning multiple victories, he also engaged northern powers such as the Pahlavas (Indo-Parthians) and the Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) who ruled western and northern India. In 78 CE, Gautamiputra Satakarni dealt a severe blow to a combined coalition of his enemies, decisively reestablishing his supremacy in the Deccan, Malwa, and Gujarat.

Gautamiputra Satakarni, greatest Emperor of the Satavahana Empire; Source: రహ్మానుద్దీన్, CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0, via Wikimedia Commons — *Gautamiputra Satakarni, greatest Emperor of the Satavahana Empire*; *Source: రహ్మానుద్దీన్, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons*

To commemorate the occasion, he performed the Ashwamedha and Rajasuya yajnas. At the same time, the Shaka King Nahapana is believed to have passed away, and Chashtana ascended to power. The victory of Gautamiputra Satakarni and his Satavahanas is believed to have started the Shalivahana Shaka era or Shaka calendar of the Hindus, although this is a debated issue. His influence also extended to cover the Eastern Deccan.

His son Vasishtiputra Pulumavi consolidated his hold over the eastern Deccan, so that the Satavahana Empire now extended from west coast to east coast; and from the edge of Rajasthan to southern Karnataka. Conflict with the Shakas flared up again during the reign of Vasishtiputra Satakarni, brother and successor of Pulumavi. To forge an alliance, he married the daughter of Shaka King Rudradaman.

Decline

However, despite the matrimonial relations, Vasishtiputra Satakarni lost two wars to his father-in-law, who only spared him because of their relation. This greatly lowered Satavahana prestige. The Shakas again captured much of the western territories except Nashik and Pune, and Satavahana power now came to be concentrated at Amaravati in modern-day Andhra Pradesh.

His grandson Yajna Satakarni revived the empire around 160 CE, taking back most of the western territories. However, his successors could not keep the central power strong, and the Empire soon fragmented into five different parts, marking the end of the mighty Satavahanas.

Political, Military, and Administrative Aspects

The Satavahanas followed the administrative guidelines of the Shastras, the ancient Vedic treatises and scriptures. As with most post-Maurya kingdoms, they also inherited a general structure of administration. However, the Satavahana government was less bureaucratically top-heavy than the Mauryans. The general administrative organization was:

Rajan, the hereditary rulers
Rajas, petty princes who struck coins in their own names
Maharathis, powerful hereditary lords who could grant villages in their own names and maintained matrimonial relations with the ruling family
Mahabhojas
Mahasenapati (civil administrator/governor)
Mahatalavara

The Kumaras or royal princes, appointed as viceroys of the provinces, gained experience in administration. Aharas were the major subdivisions of the Satavahana Empire, consisting of nagaras (cities), nigama (market towns) and gama (villages).

The Satavahana military consisted of infantry, cavalry, and elephants. The infantry usually formed the vanguard and the horses and elephants flanked them on either side. Spears, swords, and axes were common weapons. The King and the nobility were expected to lead the armies from the front.

The Satavahanas, since their rise to power, had to contend with the north-western Shakas for supremacy. Beyond the Shakas lay the territories of the Pahlavas and the Indo-Greeks with whom also some clashes happened. After Gautamiputra’s victories, peace was established- albeit briefly. Although the Satavahanas had the larger empire and arguably the greater impact upon history, the different dynasties of the Shakas managed to hold on to their territories in western India for almost 2 centuries after the Satavahanas, ultimately being defeated by the Guptas.

Maximum Extent of Satavahana Empire (at different periods marked by continued and dotted lines), along with neighboring powers — *Maximum Extent of Satavahana Empire (at different periods marked by continued and dotted lines), along with neighboring Western Satraps, Kushan Empire, Cholas and Pandyas*

To the south, they maintained trade relations with the various tribes, as well as the Three Kingdoms- Chola, Chera, and Pandya- that controlled most of modern-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

However, the Satavahanas are famed for their control over the sea routes through their ports. Called ‘Trisamudrishwara- The Lords of the Three Oceans’, they heavily promoted international trade. To the west, they traded extensively with Rome, while to the east their mariners went to south-east Asia. The resultant increase in prosperity mirrors that of the Kushans in the north, who were their contemporaries.

Social, Cultural, and Economic Aspects

The Satavahanas were probably Brahmins, with Gautamiputra even described as ‘Ekabrahmana’ which can be translated as ‘peerless Brahmin’. However, some sources have also suggested a Kshatriya origin. Though their culture was typically Hindu, their subjects freely practiced various religions. In particular, the Satavahanas supported and gave alms to Hindu as well as Buddhist priests. The Buddhist caves at Naneghat, for example, were excavated during the Satavahana reign. These caves contain the inscription of Naganika, which mentions that her husband Satakarni I performed several Hindu yajnas. The inscription also records large fees paid to Brahmin priests and attendees for these sacrifices. Satakarni II also commissioned the building of the elaborate gates at the famous Buddhist stupa at Sanchi.

The Pandavleni Buddhist Caves at Nashik were also developed under the Satavahana Empire, with donations by local merchants and administrators. The interesting thing here is that, although the area was sometimes under Shaka rule and sometimes under the Satavahanas, both the dynasties contributed to the development of these religious places!

Agriculture, of course, was the backbone of the Satavahana economy; and national and international trade was one of the chief sources of income. After Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar conquered Egypt, he opened up new trade routes to India, where the Satavahanas exported prized commodities like cotton, silk, pearls, and spices. Interestingly, during the excavations at the Roman city of Pompeii, destroyed due to volcanic eruptions, archaeologists discovered a statue of the goddess Lakshmi, dating back to the Satavahana era. Known today as the Pompeii Lakshmi, it gives us an idea of the far-reaching interactions between Rome and Paithan!

*Pompeii Lakshmi; Source: By Sailko – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0*

In the latter half of the 2^nd century, the focus of trade shifted to the eastern coast. Amaravati became the centre of power. The remains of a magnificent Buddhist Stupa in Amaravati indicate the prosperity of the Satavahana Empire.

The Satavahanas also used the Prakrit language more than Sanskrit. During the reign of Emperor Hala, the Gaha Sattasai (Gatha Saptashati), a compilation of poems describing the joy and torment of love was written. His minister Gunadhya is also supposed to be the author of the lost epic, Brihatkatha. Under Satavahana rule, women received higher education. Many queens ruled as regents while their sons were growing up; and as seen by the example of Naganika, often took part in the affairs of state. As each ruler had multiple wives, the princes took their first names from their mother, both to distinguish themselves and honor their parentage.

Legacy

The Satavahanas ruled over the Deccan for more than two centuries. The various caves at Pandavleni, Naneghat and other places, the temples and stupas, the large number of coins found, attest to their historical importance. The Republic of India adopted the Shalivahana Shaka Era calendar as its national calendar. The historic Dakshinapatha- the Southern Highway connecting the Deccan to the North- roughly corresponds with today’s NH7.

Gautamiputra Satakarni statue in Amaravati regional capital of Satavahana Empire; Source: Krishna Chaitanya Velaga, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons — *Gautamiputra Satakarni statue in Amaravati; Source: Krishna Chaitanya Velaga, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0* *via Wikimedia Commons*

Gautamiputra’s victory over the rulers of Scythian, Persian and Greek descent, cemented Satavahana legacy as the ‘sons of the soil’, who defended against foreign invasions. At the same time, their support to all religions, as well as the growth and expansion of trade, shows their benevolence and economic acumen. Indeed, there is much to learn from the First Empire of the Deccan!

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on August 15, 2020April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 4 Comments

The Chhatrapati and the Peshwa, Part 2- Balaji Vishwanath secures the Swarajya

Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath Statue, Shriwardhan; Source: Amit20081980 / CC BY-SA

In January 1708, Shahu Maharaj was crowned Chhatrapati at Satara. This moment signaled a new page in Indian history, but that wasn’t apparent at the time. Rather, Shahu had to face so many threats from so many sides in the decade that followed, that people questioned whether the Marathas would even survive politically. And yet, survive they did, thanks to another great man who arose from humble origins- Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath Bhat.

Balaji Vishwanath Bhat- Origins

Balaji Vishwanath Bhat was born in 1660 in the coastal town of Shrivardhan. The area was, at the time, controlled by the Siddis of Janjira. Fleeing their persecution, Balaji migrated to the Maratha heartland, accompanied by his close friend Balaji Bhanu and his 2 brothers.

Coming to Purandar, he became acquainted with the Purandare family, and served as an accountant for Dhanaji Jadhav. With his brilliant mind and penchant for diplomacy, Balaji quickly became a trusted aide to the administration. In a letter by Ramchandra Pant Amatya to Chhatrapati Rajaram (in 1693), he recalls having sent Balaji Vishwanath to search for Sambhaji Maharaj after his capture by the Mughals. During Rajaram’s reign, Balaji was a revenue-collecting official in Chiplun, and later Pune. Since all of Maharashtra had come under Mughal occupation at the time, collecting revenue and sending it safely to the ministers was difficult. However, Balaji excelled in his duties and was made the Sarsubhedar of Pune by 1700. During this time, he had also provided resources and ensured Shahu’s welfare in the Mughal camps, most probably through the help of Mughal Princess Zeenat un-Nissa.

When Shahu returned in 1707, Balaji played a huge part in convincing his master Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav and other leaders to support Shahu. In recognition of this, Shahu appointed Balaji as ‘Senakarte’ or the Head of Army Logistics. His job was to procure funds for the armies. Balaji advised young Shahu to recreate the stable administration system of Shivaji Maharaj which had completely fallen apart. Key to this was reinstating the Pradhan Mandal. Hence, on the recommendation of the Senapati and Khando Ballal Chitnis, Shahu appointed Bahiro Pant Pingale, youngest son of the first Peshwa Moro Pant, as the new Peshwa (Prime Minister). He also released Parshuram Pant ‘Pratinidhi’ after he swore loyalty to Shahu. Balaji also advised on the appointments of the other ministers.

Challenges to the Maratha Kingdom

Despite Shahu’s coronation and the new administrative appointments, their troubles were far from over. Shahu knew his aunt Tarabai would not give up her claims easily. Wisely, he extended her an olive branch, and agreed to divide the Kingdom between them, avoiding further conflict. Tarabai spurned his offer. She released Ramchandra Pant Amatya and asked him to take charge of her son’s administration. The veteran advised her to make peace, but she denounced Shahu as a Mughal puppet.

Again, Shahu led an army to Panhala, but Tarabai escaped to Rangna. When Shahu decided to pursue her, Dhanaji reminded him of everything Tarabai had accomplished and sacrificed for the Maratha cause. So, Shahu declared the territory of Panhala and surrounding areas as Tarabai’s independent domain, and retreated. He decided to focus on improving administration and strengthening his position. Tarabai established her capital at Kolhapur, forever dividing the Maratha Kingdom into two.

*Maharani Tarabai statue in Kolhapur; Image Source*

The New Senapati

Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav died soon after. Immediately, Shahu’s position weakened, as many of the sardars had supported him because of Dhanaji. With the Commander gone, how long would Shahu last?

Shahu promoted Dhanaji’s son Chandrasen as the new Senapati, but this proved problematic. Chandrasen had always resented the trust that Balaji Vishwanath had shared with his father, and privately believed in Tarabai’s cause. Over the next two years, his rivalry with Balaji only increased as Balaji grew closer to Shahu. Hence, rather than try to consolidate his king’s position, Chandrasen indulged in conspiracy with Tarabai.

The Rebellious Sardars

During the War of Independence, all the Maratha sardars had operated independently, with the only common bond being their fight against the Mughals. Rajaram Maharaj and his Council had encouraged them to raise their own armies and conquer territories back from the Mughals, by declaring that the territory they conquered would remain under their rule. Although against the policies established by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, this yielded good results during the War. However, now that there was a central governing authority back in place, the sardars were reluctant to give up their autonomy. Hence, many of them refused to pay the taxes owed to Shahu.

Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj and Peshwa Bahiro Pant Pingale then personally led missions to collect the taxes and keep the economy afloat. With his decades of experience in revenue collection, Balaji’s advice became indispensable. Soon Balaji became Shahu’s friend, philosopher, and guide; and his success in battlefield logistics and revenue administration ensured his meteoric rise to power.

Relations with the Mughals

Though the Mughals freed Shahu, they continued to keep his mother and wife imprisoned. Hence, Shahu had no choice but to submit to them. In Delhi, Prince Muazzam had killed his brother Azam and crowned himself as Bahadur Shah. He then came to Hyderabad to kill his last remaining brother Kam Baksh. At this time, Shahu sent his envoys to Bahadur Shah, professing his loyalty to the Mughals. In return, he asked the Emperor to free his family, and declare him the rightful successor to Shivaji rather than his cousin Shivaji II. This would allow Shahu Maharaj the important rights of collecting the Chauth (one-fourth of total revenue) that his grandfather had exercised over most of the Deccan.

However, when his envoys reached the Mughal camp, they found Tarabai’s envoys already there! The wily old queen, while denouncing Shahu as a Mughal puppet, was herself trying to gain favor with them.

Bahadur Shah I diplomatically declared that this was an internal issue that the Marathas must resolve among themselves. This, of course, ensured that the Marathas remained divided!

Balaji Vishwanath becomes Peshwa

In 1711, tensions peaked between Chandrasen and Balaji. Using a hunting accident as an excuse, Chandrasen attacked Balaji with 3000 men. Not having enough men to fight, Balaji sought refuge at Purandar. The great sardars Pilaji Jadhavrao and Yamaji Dhumal protected his family- wife Radhabai, two daughters, and two sons- Bajirao and Chimaji. Shahu Maharaj sent a great army and defeated Chandrasen, who escaped and joined Tarabai. This was also 11-year old Bajirao’s first battle.

In 1713, an even greater calamity struck. Kanhoji Angre, the great Sarkhel or Admiral of the Maratha Navy, declared his support for Tarabai. He had so far not acted for either side, preferring to administer the coast independently, but now he began capturing Shahu’s forts. Bahiro Pant Peshwa led an army, but proved no match for the experienced admiral. Kanhoji imprisoned him at Kolaba Fort, and marched toward Satara.

At Shahu’s court, none of the other Pradhans were ready to deal with Kanhoji. In desperation, Shahu turned to his trusted advisor Balaji; however, Balaji was a ‘Senakarte’ and not a full Cabinet Minister. Kanhoji would not take him seriously, so Balaji pragmatically advised Shahu to appoint him an interim Peshwa. Thus on 13 November 1713, Balaji Vishwanath was appointed the 5^th Peshwa of the Swarajya. Balaji led successful countermoves against Kanhoji, such that Kanhoji finally agreed to discuss terms.

Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath; Source: By Amit20081980 - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0 — *Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath; Source: By Amit20081980 – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0*

Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath stabilizes the Swarajya

In a historic meeting at Lohagad, Kanhoji and Balaji connected over their shared ‘Konkani’ heritage. Balaji appealed to the old man’s patriotism, as a bakhar narrates-

Your father Tukaji served Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. Now Shahu Maharaj is the senior, the heir to the throne…Instead, you are serving the younger brother and have turned your face away from Chhatrapati Shahu. Is it the dharma of a servant to imprison the Pradhan or take the master’s forts?”

Eventually, in return for near-autonomy over the Konkan, Kanhoji agreed to serve Shahu Maharaj, released Bahiro Pant, and returned the captured forts. Shahu gave him a place in his Council, and agreed to provide troops against the Portuguese and Siddis. Shahu then made Balaji’s appointment permanent.

Balaji set out to stabilize the kingdom. Meeting all the important Sardars, he signed treaties similar to the one with Kanhoji. The Sardars got the right to govern their territories without interference, in return for supporting Shahu Maharaj with troops and taxes. Those that refused were defeated and captured. Peace was slowly restored. Balaji also designed a new, robust revenue collection system that slowly revitalized the economy and brought prosperity.

All that remained to be dealt with was Tarabai.

Conspiracy in Kolhapur

The solution was not difficult. In 1700, when Tarabai crowned her son Shivaji II after Rajaram’s death, she had imprisoned Rajaram’s other wife Rajasbai and her son Sambhaji II. After all, if Tarabai could seat her son on the throne that Rajaram had always declared would go to his nephew Shahu, there was nothing stopping Rajasbai from doing the same!

Thus, in 1714, after finding Tarabai and her son unwilling to establish peace, their administrator Ramchandra Pant released Rajasbai and her son from prison. Rajasbai took over the throne of Kolhapur and imprisoned Tarabai and her son at Panhala. Rajasbai sent a letter to Shahu, accepting the demarcation of territories, and seeking his blessings. Shahu Maharaj promised her his protection, and peace was established in the Swarajya.

Alliance with the Sayyads

Meanwhile, the death of Bahadur Shah in 1712 marked the death of the last competent Mughal Emperor. His successor Jahandar Shah was addicted to wine and opium, and preferred cavorting with his many mistresses than ruling. He was deposed by his nephew Farrukh Siyar, who came into power only with the support of two brothers- the kingmakers Sayyad Abdullah and Sayyad Hussein Ali. These brothers now held the true power in Delhi. Abdullah became the Wazir, and Hussein Ali came to the Deccan as the new Viceroy in 1715.

Hussein Ali and the Marathas clashed for over two years without any conclusion. At the same time, Farrukh Siyar was trying to get rid of the controlling Sayyad brothers, who knew it. Conspiracies became commonplace.

In 1718, the Sayyad brothers realized that Farrukh Siyar was becoming a threat to their power. Hence, Hussein Ali approached Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath; they drafted a treaty and sent it to the Emperor. Farrukh Siyar denied all the terms. Then the Marathas and Sayyads sprung their trap.

They declared that one of Aurangzeb’s grandsons had been in Maratha custody since Aurangzeb’s death, and that they would hand him over to the Mughals in return for their demands. In truth, the grandson had died long ago; but the Marathas found an impostor to act the role. They furnished him with all the grandeur befitting a Mughal prince. Farrukh Siyar knew this ‘prince’ was a threat to his throne! He demanded the Marathas hand him over.

The Marathas march to Delhi

*The Zari Patka in Delhi: Talk by D. Uday Kulkarni on Maratha Influence in 18th century India*

In 1718, the Marathas set out with an army of 50,000, led by Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, new Senapati Khanderao Dabhade, Balaji Bhanu, Pilaji Jadhavrao, and 18-year old Bajirao. They were joined by Hussein Ali with an equally formidable force. On 16 February, this mighty army entered Delhi. The first day went by in negotiations.

The next day, heavy skirmishes occurred in the Delhi streets between the Emperor’s men and Hussein Ali’s. The Marathas were ambushed, and blood flowed freely. Balaji Bhanu was murdered; however, Bajirao and his contingent successfully guarded one of the gates of the Red Fort. Angry, Hussein Ali dragged out Farrukh Siyar hiding in his harem, and blinded him!

In his place, the Sayyads installed a new puppet, Rafi ud-Darjat, who meekly signed the treaty with the following terms:

Formal recognition by the Mughals of the independent Swarajya founded by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj
Formal recognition of Shahu as the supreme ruler and Chhatrapati of the Marathas
Release of all imprisoned Marathas including Shahu’s mother, wife, and half-brother
The rights to collect the Chauthai (25% of total revenue) in all 6 provinces of the Deccan- Aurangabad, Khandesh, Bidar, Varhad, Bijapur and Telangana, to the Maratha Government
The rights to collect the Sardeshmukhi (10% of total revenue) in all 6 provinces of the Deccan, personally to the Chhatrapati

In return, the Marathas would:

Recognize the Mughal Emperor’s nominal authority
Keep an army to maintain peace in the Deccan
Keep an additional 15,000 troops for the protection of the Mughal throne

As historian G.S. Sardesai states, ‘when a sovereign seeks protection from a vassal, it means that in actual practice the comparative strength of the two parties is reversed’. Thus, while in name, the Marathas acknowledged Mughal authority outside their Swarajya, in reality they had become protectors of the Mughals!

Swarajya becomes Saamrajya

Reunited with his family, a weary Shahu approaching age 40 desired some peace and quiet. He asked Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath to handle the everyday responsibilities in his name, and shift his own court to Pune, which was being raided by miscreants. Accordingly, Balaji moved to Pune and began handling the administration from there, with regular reports sent to Satara. He spent the next few months stabilizing the new administration and passed away in April 1720. His accomplishments earned him the title ‘Second Founder of the Maratha State’!

*Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj and his Peshwa; Source: Amit20081980~commonswiki / CC BY-SA 4.0*

Shahu Maharaj appointed his son Bajirao as his next Peshwa. During Bajirao’s illustrious career, the Peshwa or Prime Minister became the real power centre of the Marathas, while still serving the Chhatrapati as the master. Since Shahu had no sons, he adopted his nephew Rajaram II (son of Shivaji II) as his titular successor, and officially transferred the authority of ruling the now vast empire to the Bhat Peshwa family. Under the Chhatrapatis and the Peshwas, the Marathas ruled most of the subcontinent for 70 years, constituting a glorious albeit forgotten chapter in Indian history.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on August 8, 2020April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 8 Comments

The Chhatrapati and the Peshwa, Part 1- The Rise of Shahu Maharaj

Frequently, when discussing Indian history, people ask me about the Chhatrapatis and the Peshwas and their exact role in Maratha history. It is sad that these things have not been clearly emphasized in school textbooks, but the politics of British and even independent India has succeeded in obscuring them needlessly. Hence, when taking the story of the Marathas forward after the Maratha War of Independence, it is necessary to clarify this oft-questioned point.

The Chhatrapati and the Peshwa- Meaning and Origins

*Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Founder of the Maratha Empire*

In 1674, when Shivaji Maharaj was formally crowned, the title ‘Chhatrapati’ was chosen for his ascension. The word comes from the Sanskrit ‘Chhatra’ meaning umbrella or parasol, or figuratively, roof; and ‘pati’ meaning ‘Lord’. Thus, Chhatrapati literally translates to ‘Lord of the Parasol’; figuratively, it signifies a sovereign holding the roof of protection over other rulers. In English, it would be equivalent to ‘Emperor’ or ‘Lord Paramount’. Practically, it signified that Shivaji Maharaj was not a mere ‘Raja’ or ‘Maharaja’ serving under some Sultan; but rather, a fully independent sovereign ruler. His sons and descendants continued to inherit the title till after Indian independence.

The term ‘Peshwa’, on the other hand, was of Persian origin. Literally, it means ‘the First’ or ‘the Foremost’; figuratively it translates to ‘Prime Minister’. This title has an interesting history behind it. In 1642, when a young Shivaji visited his father Shahaji Maharaj in Karnataka, Shahaji appointed a group of experienced, loyal ministers to aid and advise his son in governing Pune and surrounding areas. Among these, Shamraj Pant Rozekar was appointed as the ‘Peshwa’. His duty was to oversee the administration of the province and act as the chief among ministers.

Over time, the crucial position of Peshwa came to rest with Moreshwar ‘Moro Pant’ Pingle, an enterprising leader who had joined the Maratha Revolution early on. Moro Pant constructed the Pratapgad fort, and took part in the Battle against Afzal Khan. He led several successful military missions in Nashik and Baglan, with the most famous being the great Battle of Salher-Mulher. Thus in 1674, Moro Pant Pingle became the first ‘Peshwa’ of the Swarajya. Shivaji Maharaj changed the title to Sanskrit as ‘Mukhya Pradhan’. However, the original title remained in use throughout Maratha history.

Peshwa- Role and Functions

In the ‘Kanoon Zabita’ (Book of Civil Law) compiled in 1674, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj defines the role and functions of the Peshwa:

The Mukhya Pradhan should look after all activities involved in governing the kingdom. He should bear the official Stamp of the State and seal the royal letters. When required, he should lead the armies of the kingdom and fight on the battlefield. Once a new province is conquered, it is the Mukhya Pradhan’s duty to ensure its security, and set its administrative affairs in order. He should have the confidence of the noblemen as well as the military, and work in consultation with them as a true leader.

The Peshwa during the Maratha War of Independence

All members of the Pradhan Mandal were appointed based on merit and experience, and the positions were not hereditary. However, in 1680, Moro Pant Pingle passed away of illness and age. Though he had unwillingly supported Queen Soyarabai and the Sacheev Annaji Datto in their power struggle against Prince Sambhaji; he had repented and sought forgiveness after the latter emerged victorious. Recognizing him as a great pillar of the Swarajya since its inception, Sambhaji had forgiven Moro Pant and restored his title and position. In recognition of his services, newly-crowned Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj also appointed his eldest son Nilkanth ‘Nilo Pant’ as his next Peshwa.

Nilo Pant served his King to the best of his abilities; however, he was at the time the least experienced member of the Council. Hence, in the years to come, stalwarts like Ramchandra Pant ‘Amatya’, ‘Shankaraji Pant ‘Sacheev’ and the Senapatis, Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav played more important roles. After Sambhaji’s death, Nilo Pant helped Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj escape to Jinjee fort. Post that, however, his role seems to have been taken over by Ramchandra Pant Amatya in Maharashtra, and Prahlad Pant, appointed in the newly formed role of ‘Pratinidhi’ at Jinjee. Till 1707, the above functionaries led the war against Aurangzeb, first under Rajaram Maharaj and then under his wife Maharani Tarabai. The Peshwa seems to have receded into the background, and conflicting records have been found of his fate.

Thus things progressed till 1707. But everything changed with the rise of Shahu Maharaj; and this is where we now pick up the story.

Shahu Maharaj- Early Years

Shahuji Bhonsale, son of Sambhaji Maharaj, spent 18 years of his life in Mughal captivity along with his mother Yesubai. The captured Marathas lived in fear of Aurangzeb’s displeasure, but the wily Emperor had a long-term plan. He wanted to use Shahu against his uncle Rajaram, and held him and his family as political prisoners. But even in these dark times, Shahu found a protector.

*Supposed posthumous painting based on Zeenat un-Nissa*

Zeenat un-Nissa, Aurangzeb’s favorite daughter, grew fond of little Shahu. An unmarried, pious lady, she began to think of Shahu as a son, and became his guardian angel. Not only did she help Yesubai ensure the safety of her people, she also facilitated Shahu’s education. Shahu grew fluent in Marathi, Sanskrit, and Farsi, and became well-versed in the history of both the Marathas and the Mughals. Having spent his formative years surrounded by violence, Shahu developed a wise, peaceful disposition that disliked conflict.

Once, in a fit of paranoia, Aurangzeb tried to convert Shahu to Islam, even issuing a royal firman. Once again, it was Zeenat un-Nissa who pleaded with Aurangzeb to change his mind. When he argued that he could not take back an issued firman, two sons of Shivaji’s late Commander Prataprao Gujar agreed to convert in Shahu’s stead. And so, Shahu was able to remain a Hindu.

In time, Aurangzeb himself grew somewhat fond of the quiet, intelligent and philosophical young man. He even arranged his marriage with the daughters of two Maratha sardars working for the Mughals, and presented him three swords as a gift- one that had belonged to Shivaji Maharaj, one that had belonged to Afzal Khan, and one belonging to the Emperor himself.

Death of a Tyrant

In the April of 1707, Aurangzeb Alamgir lay on his deathbed in Aurangabad. At his bedside were his most trusted advisors Nizam ul-Mulk and Zulfiqar Khan, his son Prince Azam, daughter Zeenat un-Nissa, and favorite prisoner, Shahu. The 89-year old tyrant, ruler of almost the entire Indian Subcontinent knew that his sons would never be able to continue the legacy of the House of Timur and Babar.

According to many accounts, Aurangzeb called Shahu to his side. He made Shahu swear that as long as he lived he would not let the House of Timur be destroyed, to which Shahu complied.

Then the Emperor died, and all hell broke loose.

His sons Muazzam, Azam, and Kam Baksh declared war against each other for the Mughal Throne, and Azam began to march northward to seize it. But what of Maharashtra? The Marathas had fought Aurangzeb for 27 years, and now they would take the opportunity to increase their strength. Azam knew he couldn’t allow them to consolidate. And so, he decided to initiate Aurangzeb’s long-term plan. He released Shahu!

Shahu Maharaj vs Maharani Tarabai

Long in the making, this was a masterstroke. The diminished Maratha Kingdom was then nominally ruled by Shahu’s teenaged cousin Shivaji II. However, it was Shahu’s aunt Maharani Tarabai who wielded the real power. The great warrior queen had spent the last seven years reclaiming the Swarajya from the Mughals, and had grown used to ruling. Would she simply hand over the throne?

Shahu left the Mughal camp with great fanfare, as befit a prince returning home. He wrote to Tarabai, declaring that he had been released and was coming to the capital Satara to meet her.

Tarabai called for her council of ministers- Ramchandra Pant Amatya (Finance Minister), Shankaraji Pant Sacheev (State Secretary), Parshuram Pant Pratinidhi (Viceroy), Khando Ballal Chitnis (Royal Secretary), and Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav (Commander-in-Chief). “Who is this young man?” She asked them. “Are we even sure that this is the real Shahu, son of Sambhaji? Or is he some impostor, coming from the Mughals to destroy us?” She refused to accept Shahu as the real heir, and the council sent envoys to find the truth.

By this time, Shahu had been joined by some veteran Maratha generals- Nemaji Shinde, Parsoji Bhonsle, Chimnaji Damodar Moghe, and Ambaji Pant Purandare. His armies increasing, Shahu marched south. Despite his claim to the throne, he knew quite well why the Mughals had released him. So, he desired to avoid war within the Maratha Kingdom and attempt a peaceful resolution. However, at the village of Parad, the local Patil loyal to Tarabai opposed him. In the brief battle that ensued, the Patil died. His grieving wife brought the Patil’s little son to Shahu, and demanded to know who would take care of him. Tender-hearted Shahu adopted him as a son, and named him Fateh Sinh Bhonsale.

The Maratha Civil War

The Council of Ministers ascertained that the young man was indeed the son of Sambhaji Maharaj. It was one of Dhanaji’s trusted aides, Balaji Vishwanath Bhat, who confirmed it. Balaji had met Shahu Maharaj when negotiating with the Mughals as the Sarsubhedar of Pune. Privately, Balaji also urged Dhanaji to join Shahu, as he was the rightful heir to the Maratha Throne. Ramchandra Pant Amatya wrote a congratulatory letter to Shahu and wished him success. Furious, Tarabai imprisoned him.

Her first ploy having failed, Tarabai changed her tack. Now, she declared that even if Shahu was indeed Sambhaji’s son, he had no right to her son’s throne!

In a letter, she wrote to her sardars, “The kingdom that the Thorle Maharaj (Shivaji) founded with great personal effort was lost by Sambhaji kaka along with his life. Then, the late swami (Rajaram) by his own courage created a new kingdom and defended it from the Mughals… Therefore, Shahu has nothing to do with this kingdom.”

Despite this, she knew her argument was weak, and that the loyalty of the noblemen was wavering. Hence, she asked the Council of Ministers to swear the ‘doodh bhaat’ (milk and rice) sacred oath of loyalty. Unwillingly, Shankaraji Pant and Dhanaji Jadhav swore to serve Tarabai loyally. Khando Ballal however, cleverly only specified that he would not help Shahu if he was an impostor.

With a large army, the Pratinidhi, the Senapati and the Chitnis left Satara to engage Shahu’s forces. However, the old Senapati privately asked Khando Ballal Chitnis to verify whether Shahu was indeed the real heir. Khando Ballal met Shahu Maharaj secretly and ascertained his identity. Agreeing with Balaji Vishwanath, he convinced Dhanaji to abandon Tarabai’s cause.

The Battle of Khed

Senapati Dhanaji jadhav, Commander-in-Chief of the Maratha Army — *Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav, Commander-in-Chief of the Maratha Army*; Image Source

At Khed, the two forces met. However, Dhanaji’s contingent only pretended to fight and stayed aloof. Exposed, Parshuram Pant Pratinidhi fled with his forces to Satara. Dhanaji surrendered to Shahu Maharaj, who then released him from all prior oaths and appointed him his Senapati. And they marched forward.

At Shirwal, Shahu tried to approach Shankaraji Pant Sacheev. But the honorable old minister could not decide where his loyalties lay- to his sworn oath or to the rightful heir. Torn between the two, Shankaraji committed suicide.

Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj

Now, Shahu marched to Satara. The Pratinidhi strengthened the fort and sent Tarabai and Shivaji II to Panhala. Looking at the huge fortress, Dhanaji expressed doubt about conquering it. But Shahu calmly said, “The fort will fall eight days from now.”

And fall it did. Shahu’s forces entered and imprisoned the Pratinidhi. Key to this victory were Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav and his resourceful aide, Balaji Vishwanath Bhat.

On January 12, 1708, 25-year old Shahu ascended to his grandfather’s throne. The quiet, dutiful former prisoner of the Mughal camp had now become Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj!

And just like that, a new sun had arisen over the fortunes of the Maratha Empire.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on July 24, 2020April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 4 Comments

12 Greatest Empires in Indian History- 2. The Kushan Empire

The Indian Subcontinent has been host to a number of powerful empires and dynasties throughout the ages. In this series of articles, we take a look at 12 of the greatest empires in the subcontinent’s history- empires that have shaped the story of the land and left behind a legacy that persists to this day.

In Part 1 of the series, we covered the well-known Maurya Empire, considered by many to be the first and most extensive historical empire in the subcontinent. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya and his guru Chanakya, it rose to its zenith under Ashoka the Great, and declined after his death to formally end in 180 BCE. But what happened after that? The period between the fall of the Mauryas and the rise of the Guptas in the 3rd century CE was shrouded in mystery for a long time. Historians found mentions in the Roman, Parthian and Chinese records of a Bactrian empire and culture, but knew nothing about who they were. It was only in the 19th century that the modern archaeological study revealed the existence of a powerful empire that dominated Central Asia and the northern Indian subcontinent, thus filling in the historical gaps.

The fall of the Maurya Empire gave rise to a number of new kingdoms formed out of its various provinces. The Shungas ruled in Bihar, Bengal and East India, while the Mahameghavahanas ruled Kalinga (Odisha) and the Indo-Parthians and Indo-Scythians ruled the northern and western parts of the subcontinent. For almost two centuries, a number of successive kingdoms arose, until one by one, they fell to the influence of an unlikely new power- the Kushans.

2. The Kushan Empire (30 CE- 270 CE; highly diminished rule till 350 CE)

What if you were to hear about an empire that lasted for almost 3 centuries, consisted of wealthy metropolitan cities, and was home to people of different ethnicities worshiping a number of different gods? And yet, these people, living ‘luxurious lifestyles’ as per the Chinese, left virtually no written records of their exploits or histories?

The Kushan Empire reigned supreme over a large part of Asia, approximately 2 million sq. km., for almost 200 years. The Kushans were part of the Yuezhi tribes that migrated to the region of Bactria. Settling there, they adopted major elements of the prevalent Greek culture. Their origin is most likely to have been Indo-European. In any case, the 5 tribes of the Yuezhi ruled in Bactria until the Guishang or Kushan united them to form an empire. At its height, this empire ruled over parts of modern-day Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Northern India.

However, there are almost no records written by the Kushans about themselves. We find many records from Roman, Chinese and other writers. Similarly, there are no paintings that have survived to this era. Hence, for most of history, people did not know much about them, and it is only over the last 200 years that we have begun to learn their story. Let us, then, take a look at this forgotten empire of the Indian Subcontinent.

The Rise

The first well-recorded ruler of the Kushans is known as Kajula Kadphises. He rose to prominence around 40-50 CE (AD) by defeating the other 4 tribes and became their emperor. Expanding towards the east, he defeated the Indo-Parthian kingdom in Afghanistan and north-western part of the Indian Subcontinent. Along with his son Vima Takto, he conquered the city of Kabul and pressed onward.

Vima Takto became Emperor around 90 CE, and extended his empire north into Bactria and the Tarim Basin in China. During his time, envoys were exchanged between the Han Empire of China and the Kushans. Though he was probably Parsi (Zoroastrian) by faith, during his times a syncretic tradition of religions began. After his death, his son Vima Kadphises increased his territory in Central Asia as well as India and encouraged extensive trade with the Roman Empire to the West, and the Han Chinese Empire to the East. The Kushan Empire became the centre of trade in the Old World, and increasing prosperity saw Vima introduce golden coinage in addition to silver and copper.

Gold Coin of Vima Kadphises; Source: Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com / CC BY-SA (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) — *Gold coin of Emperor Vima Kadphises (left) depicting Lord Shiva (right); Source: Classical Numismatic Group, Inc., CC BY-SA*

Zenith of the Empire

It was under the 23-year reign of his son Kanishka I that the Kushans reached the maximum territorial extent. The Kushan Empire extended from Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, to Ujjain in the south, and Afghanistan in the northwest to Pataliputra (Patna) in the southeast. Some territories in the Tarim Basin of China are also considered to be tributaries of Kanishka.

Samrat Kanishka the Great of the Kushan Empire; Source: theweek.in — *Samrat Kanishka the Great; Source: theweek.in*

Kanishka controlled the Silk Route that connected Rome to China, and thus all trade happened under his benevolent gaze. His empire grew in wealth and splendor, and he established several trade centers. His coinage includes a diverse symbolism- Greek, Parsi, Buddhist, Hindu, Mesopotamian- proof of the syncretic religious traditions in his domain. He also commissioned the massive Buddhist Kanishka Stupa at his capital Purushapura (Peshawar), where pilgrims visited from all over Asia. His benevolent administration earned him the appellation of Kanishka the Great!

The golden age of the Kushan Empire continued under Kanishka’s son Huvishka, who established greater control over Mathura and consolidated his father’s territories. A devotee of Shiva, his coins bore the image of Mahadeva and his son Kartikeya. His son, Emperor Vasudeva I established peaceful relations with the new Sassanian dynasty in Persia and continued prosperous rule from 191-225 CE.

Maximum extent of the Kushan Empire (dotted line); Source: By PHGCOM - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2110032 — *Maximum extent of the Kushan Empire (dotted line); Source: By PHGCOM – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2110032*

The Decline

Unfortunately, Vasudeva I was the last of the Great Kushans. His son Kanishka II had to face repeated invasions from the Sassanian Empire, and lost his territories in Central Asia. His successor Vasishka I made some efforts at consolidation during his 30-year reign, but after his death the Kushans declined.

From 270 CE onwards, the rulers, known to history as ‘Little Kushans’ mainly controlled the Punjab area, losing the east and south to the Gupta Empire and the northwest to the Persians. The last ruler Kipunada ruled only western Punjab as a vassal of the powerful Emperor Samudragupta I. With his death in 350 CE came the end of the once-mighty Kushan dynasty.

Political, Military, and Administrative Aspects

Purushapura was the original stronghold from the times of Kajula Kadphises, and became the capital of the Kushans. As their borders expanded, they established two more provincial capitals- Bagram (Afghanistan) and Mathura (India) for better administrative control. In India, they allowed the kings they conquered to continue ruling as their vassals, hence the religions, culture and military of these states remained essentially Indian.

Their traditional way of fighting was of lightly armored archers on horseback. After settling in Bactria they added strong infantry and mercenary units of the Greek tradition. Their entry into India under Vima Kadphises introduced elephants in their ranks, as well as heavy-armored cavalry units called cataphracts.

In the 1^stand 2^nd centuries, the Kushans expanded northwards up to the borders of the powerful Han Empire of China. At times, they allied with the Chinese to defeat invaders such as the Sogdians, and at times fought against them. To the west, they bordered the Parthians, beyond whom lay the mighty Roman Empire. To the south were the Shakas and the Satavahanas. During Kanishka’s time, his local vassal built the Bathinda Fort in Punjab for the Emperor. This fort was strengthened and renamed Qila Mubarak by the later Muslim rulers.

Bathinda Fort (Qila Mubarak) of the Kushan Empire, Punjab — *Bathinda Fort (Qila Mubarak), Punjab*

Kushan envoys were present at the court of Emperor Huan of Han, and presented him with gifts. Their Buddhist missionaries travelled over the Silk Route to China and there, spread the message of the Buddha. Similarly, during the reign of the powerful Roman Emperor Hadrian (117-138 CE), ambassadors arrived from Bactria seeking his friendship, probably sent by Kanishka himself. Modern excavations in Gandhara have yielded several Roman imported artifacts, giving proof of the regular international trade.

Kushan Religion- A Fascinating Syncretism

Due to the various cultures and peoples that existed in the lands they conquered, Kushan religion became fascinatingly syncretic, i.e. comprising of elements from a number of existing religions- Greek, Buddhist, Parsi and Hindu. A number of their gods share similarities with one or more gods from these pantheons. For example, they worshipped Mithra and Ahura Mazda of the Parsi (Zoroastrian) faith, Helios (Sun) and Selene (Moon) from the Greek gods, Sarapis of the Egyptians, Buddha and Maitreya of Buddhism and Shiva and his son Kartikeya from Hinduism. However, after Huvishka’s time, only two main deities appear on the coins: Oesho (Ishvara or Shiva) and Ardoksho (Devi). Still, they retained elements of the deities from other religions.

The various emperors also patronized various religions. Kanishka I in particular, constructed a number of various stupas and chaityas. He also helped convene the 4th Great Buddhist Council at Kashmir. Due to the Buddhist influence in Gandhara, a new script ‘Gandhari’ emerged, and archaeologists have found many Buddhist scrolls in this language.

Social, Economic, and Cultural Aspects

Kushan society comprised of a number of different cultures. Due to their embrace of different cultures, most provinces continued their traditions as before, even as the local rulers acknowledged the Kushans as their overlords.

Economically, the Kushans under Kanishka became one of the wealthiest empires in the world. Controlling the trade routes gave them enormous benefits, and they became the center of global trade. The two most powerful empires of Rome and China had to depend on the Kushans to trade, thus generating revenue. At its height, gold was a very common commodity in the Kushan Empire. Thus, India cemented its status as the ‘Golden Bird’ of the Old World!

The art and culture of the Kushans in Gandhara was Greco-Buddhist in nature. It adopted styles of dressing, sculpture and art from both the Greek and Indian cultures. When they conquered Mathura, they also encouraged the further development of the Mathura school of art. Here, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions came together to create a multitude of iconic artwork. Thus, Kushan culture represented a confluence of the western (Greek, Iranian) and eastern (Hindu, Buddhist) art and tradition.

*Statue of Kanishka the Great at Mathura, with the inscription: Maharaj Rajadhiraj Devaputra Kanishka; Image Source*

Legacy

The Kushan Empire, caught as it is between the eras of the mighty Mauryas and the golden Guptas, tends to get overlooked in the study of modern Indian history. However, its importance as a major trade center of the world, a link between Rome, Persia, Africa and China, and the prosperity it brought to the Indian Subcontinent cannot be underestimated. The Kushans developed extensive diplomatic and trade relations with all the other powers of the known Old World. Their economic influence helped them attain the status of a major world power alongside Rome, Parthia and China. Under Kanishka the Great, the Kushans restored peace and immense prosperity to the northern and western parts of the Subcontinent. They influenced Central Asian culture with their distinct Greco-Buddhist traditions. Their traditions of religious syncretism show that a simple understanding of different cultures can lead to a new culture- prosperous, inclusive and harmonious.

We can only hope that further research will shed some more light upon this intriguing chapter in history.

– Ashutosh Dixit