India. The very name evokes a sense of mythic grandeur, of ancient culture, magnificent history and mystic spirituality. The Indian Subcontinent, which makes up most of South Asia, has historically enjoyed a pre-eminent position in the world. Due to its rich and varied natural resources, its fabled wealth, and its geographic position, the region has a huge and multi-cultural history. Since as far back as the early Vedic period, hundreds of dynasties and cultures, conquerors and kings, have sought to establish their dominion over the ‘Sonchidiya’, as it was known.
In this series of articles, we take a look at the 12 Greatest Empires to have been established in the Indian Subcontinent, before the British rule. These empires have been listed chronologically in the order of their rise, and selected based on a number of parameters, such as the total land mass governed, the contribution to arts and culture, and their political, economic and global significance.
1. The Maurya Empire (322 BCE – 185 BCE)
The Maurya Empire was the predominant power in all of South Asia during the Iron Age. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya, it grew to cover an area of 5 million sq. km., stretching out over the present day countries of India (excluding the southernmost strip), Pakistan, Afghanistan and small parts of Iran. The Maurya Empire was the first to effectively unite the entire Indian Subcontinent, and remains the largest Indian Empire till date.
The Rise
In the wake of Alexander the Great’s retreat from India, the north-western parts were under the rule of his generals like Seleucus I Nicator. The rest of India was ruled by a number of independent kingdoms, the largest and most powerful among them being Magadha. The Nanda dynasty that ruled Magadha had become proud and decadent under the incumbent ruler, Dhana Nanda. It was then that the famed philosopher Chanakya and his young student, the charismatic warrior Chandragupta Maurya, rose in rebellion. Securing allies and followers, Chandragupta dethroned the tyrant Dhana Nanda and found himself the Samrat (Emperor) of Magadha.
From there, he launched a campaign westward, soundly defeating Seleucus and his Greek forces. Seleucus made peace with Chandragupta, surrendered territories up to Kandahar and gave his daughter to the young king in marriage. Then Chandragupta rode southward, conquering all of North India and parts of the Deccan plateau, and consolidated it by establishing a competent administration. After a glorious rule of 25 years, he abdicated the throne and became a Jain monk.
The Expansion
Bindusara, the capable son of Chandragupta, further expanded his dominions and conquered the remainder of the Deccan Plateau. His empire now stretched from eastern Iran up to modern-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala. However, the strong eastern kingdom of Kalinga (modern Odisha and north Andhra Pradesh) still resisted Mauryan domination.
After Bindusara’s death, his son Ashoka succeeded to the throne. This young Prince had already made a name for himself as ‘Ashoka the Fierce’ during his father’s wars. Well-trained in warfare and strategy, the ambitious, ruthless Emperor decided to finish the conquest of the entire Subcontinent and waged a long, bloody war with Kalinga. In the end, victory was his!
Zenith of the Empire
But though Ashoka achieved victory, the war resulted in casualties of more than a hundred thousand, horrifying the young Emperor. Already a keen student of Buddhism, this resulted in a change of heart for him, and he embraced the path of peace.
Laying down his arms, he went so far as to ban recreational hunting and promoting environmental conservation. He supported Buddhism throughout his Empire, and sent missionaries abroad. His envoys spread out as far as China, Sri Lanka, and South East Asia, preaching Buddhism and peace. He developed infrastructure throughout his empire and maintained friendly relations with all his neighbouring rulers. His magnanimous nature and the prosperity of his Empire earned him the name Ashoka the Great, and his policies and legacy remain the foundation even of modern India.
The Decline
Ashoka’s eldest sons Tivala and Kunala predeceased him, while his third son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra are believed to have become Buddhist monks. Hence, his grandson Dasharath took the throne after his death. Unfortunately, he could not keep the huge empire together for long. By the time of his death, the north-western provinces, as well as Gujarat, Maharashtra and Andhra had seceded from the Empire. While Dasharath’s half-brother and successor Samrat Samprati tried to restore Maurya power in the south, his successors proved incapable of competent rule.
The Maurya Empire formally came to an end when an ambitious general Pushyamitra Shunga assassinated Samrat Brihadratha and founded his own dynasty.
Political, Military, and Administrative Aspects
Politically, the Empire was split into 4 provinces- Tosali (east), Ujjain (west), Suvarnagiri (south), Takshashila (north) – with the imperial capital at Pataliputra (Patna). The Samrat or Emperor was the Head of State, and took policy decisions with the advice of an organized Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers). The Kumara or Crown Prince administered the provinces, similarly assisted by Mahamatyas and a council of ministers.
A large, highly disciplined and professional army protected the Empire’s boundaries and maintained peace and order. According to the Greek historian Megasthenes, the Maurya Empire wielded one of the largest militaries in the world during the Iron Age, with 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots and 9,000 war elephants. A vast espionage system conducted intelligence activities for internal and external security.
In line with the extensive bureaucracy designed and detailed by Chanakya in his treatise Arthashastra, a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. Trade and enterprise were public-private affairs: the state could own and engage in business activities just like ordinary citizens could form corporations of their own. The Empire maintained extensive diplomatic and trade ties with the Persians and the Greek city-states and satrapies to the west, as well as with the kingdoms of South-East Asia.
Social, Economic, and Cultural Aspects
The Maurya Empire comprised of Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists, along with a number of other sects, and promoted peaceful relations both internally and externally. The period saw trade relations established with the Middle East, Europe, China as well as South East Asia. Under Mauryan patronage, universities like Takshashila and Nalanda became international hubs for education and spirituality.
The unification of the region saw the introduction of a common currency, improved and fair taxation under a central government, and a number of public works such as water tanks and roads. A number of temples, stupas and other structures were built, the most famous being the Sanchi Buddhist Stupa. The renowned edicts of Ashoka, erected in various parts of the subcontinent, proclaimed his rules and policies for all his citizens to understand.
Chanakya Vishnugupta, the architect of this mighty empire, wrote the Arthashastra and the Chanakya Neeti treatises. Today, these are considered pioneering works in the fields of economics and political science on par with Machiavelli’s ‘The Prince’.
Legacy
The Maurya Empire under Chandragupta and his descendants established the identity of the Indian Subcontinent as one united entity, known as ‘Hind’ by the Persians and ‘India’ by the Greeks. Due to the political and economic stability, the trade relations established with other nations made India’s wealth and power known to the rest of the world. Even today, when the Subcontinent has been divided into 5-6 different nations, the Mauryas cast a long shadow over its history.
The Republic of India adopted the Lion Capital at Sarnath as the national emblem, symbolizing victory. The Ashoka Chakra, adopted from the Buddhist Dhamma Chakra, sits at the centre of the national flag symbolizing righteousness.
Chandragupta Maurya first built the famous Grand Trunk Road which stretches from Chittagong, Bangladesh to Kabul, Afghanistan and connects the Subcontinent to Central Asia; while Ashoka later expanded on it. Rebuilt and repaired many times from then till now, it remains one of the most important roads in Indian history. The treatises of Chanakya continue to educate modern India on economics and politics, and the numerous stupas, edicts and sculptures forever stand testament to the greatest empire of the Indian Subcontinent.
– Ashutosh Dixit
Great Emperors & Great achievements! Thanks for the detailed information of the Maurya dynasty.
Your topics are always interesting and educational. Your article was very enlightening.