The Indian Subcontinent has been host to a number of powerful empires and dynasties throughout the ages. In this series of articles, we take a look at 12 of the greatest empires in the subcontinent’s history- empires that have shaped the story of the land and left behind a legacy that persists to this day.
In Part 1 of the series, we covered the well-known Maurya Empire, considered by many to be the first and most extensive historical empire in the subcontinent. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya and his guru Chanakya, it rose to its zenith under Ashoka the Great, and declined after his death to formally end in 180 BCE. But what happened after that? The period between the fall of the Mauryas and the rise of the Guptas in the 3rd century CE was shrouded in mystery for a long time. Historians found mentions in the Roman, Parthian and Chinese records of a Bactrian empire and culture, but knew nothing about who they were. It was only in the 19th century that the modern archaeological study revealed the existence of a powerful empire that dominated Central Asia and the northern Indian subcontinent, thus filling in the historical gaps.
The fall of the Maurya Empire gave rise to a number of new kingdoms formed out of its various provinces. The Shungas ruled in Bihar, Bengal and East India, while the Mahameghavahanas ruled Kalinga (Odisha) and the Indo-Parthians and Indo-Scythians ruled the northern and western parts of the subcontinent. For almost two centuries, a number of successive kingdoms arose, until one by one, they fell to the influence of an unlikely new power- the Kushans.
2. The Kushan Empire (30 CE- 270 CE; highly diminished rule till 350 CE)
What if you were to hear about an empire that lasted for almost 3 centuries, consisted of wealthy metropolitan cities, and was home to people of different ethnicities worshiping a number of different gods? And yet, these people, living ‘luxurious lifestyles’ as per the Chinese, left virtually no written records of their exploits or histories?
The Kushan Empire reigned supreme over a large part of Asia, approximately 2 million sq. km., for almost 200 years. The Kushans were part of the Yuezhi tribes that migrated to the region of Bactria. Settling there, they adopted major elements of the prevalent Greek culture. Their origin is most likely to have been Indo-European. In any case, the 5 tribes of the Yuezhi ruled in Bactria until the Guishang or Kushan united them to form an empire. At its height, this empire ruled over parts of modern-day Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Northern India.
However, there are almost no records written by the Kushans about themselves. We find many records from Roman, Chinese and other writers. Similarly, there are no paintings that have survived to this era. Hence, for most of history, people did not know much about them, and it is only over the last 200 years that we have begun to learn their story. Let us, then, take a look at this forgotten empire of the Indian Subcontinent.
The Rise
The first well-recorded ruler of the Kushans is known as Kajula Kadphises. He rose to prominence around 40-50 CE (AD) by defeating the other 4 tribes and became their emperor. Expanding towards the east, he defeated the Indo-Parthian kingdom in Afghanistan and north-western part of the Indian Subcontinent. Along with his son Vima Takto, he conquered the city of Kabul and pressed onward.
Vima Takto became Emperor around 90 CE, and extended his empire north into Bactria and the Tarim Basin in China. During his time, envoys were exchanged between the Han Empire of China and the Kushans. Though he was probably Parsi (Zoroastrian) by faith, during his times a syncretic tradition of religions began. After his death, his son Vima Kadphises increased his territory in Central Asia as well as India and encouraged extensive trade with the Roman Empire to the West, and the Han Chinese Empire to the East. The Kushan Empire became the centre of trade in the Old World, and increasing prosperity saw Vima introduce golden coinage in addition to silver and copper.
Zenith of the Empire
It was under the 23-year reign of his son Kanishka I that the Kushans reached the maximum territorial extent. The Kushan Empire extended from Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, to Ujjain in the south, and Afghanistan in the northwest to Pataliputra (Patna) in the southeast. Some territories in the Tarim Basin of China are also considered to be tributaries of Kanishka.
Kanishka controlled the Silk Route that connected Rome to China, and thus all trade happened under his benevolent gaze. His empire grew in wealth and splendor, and he established several trade centers. His coinage includes a diverse symbolism- Greek, Parsi, Buddhist, Hindu, Mesopotamian- proof of the syncretic religious traditions in his domain. He also commissioned the massive Buddhist Kanishka Stupa at his capital Purushapura (Peshawar), where pilgrims visited from all over Asia. His benevolent administration earned him the appellation of Kanishka the Great!
The golden age of the Kushan Empire continued under Kanishka’s son Huvishka, who established greater control over Mathura and consolidated his father’s territories. A devotee of Shiva, his coins bore the image of Mahadeva and his son Kartikeya. His son, Emperor Vasudeva I established peaceful relations with the new Sassanian dynasty in Persia and continued prosperous rule from 191-225 CE.
The Decline
Unfortunately, Vasudeva I was the last of the Great Kushans. His son Kanishka II had to face repeated invasions from the Sassanian Empire, and lost his territories in Central Asia. His successor Vasishka I made some efforts at consolidation during his 30-year reign, but after his death the Kushans declined.
From 270 CE onwards, the rulers, known to history as ‘Little Kushans’ mainly controlled the Punjab area, losing the east and south to the Gupta Empire and the northwest to the Persians. The last ruler Kipunada ruled only western Punjab as a vassal of the powerful Emperor Samudragupta I. With his death in 350 CE came the end of the once-mighty Kushan dynasty.
Political, Military, and Administrative Aspects
Purushapura was the original stronghold from the times of Kajula Kadphises, and became the capital of the Kushans. As their borders expanded, they established two more provincial capitals- Bagram (Afghanistan) and Mathura (India) for better administrative control. In India, they allowed the kings they conquered to continue ruling as their vassals, hence the religions, culture and military of these states remained essentially Indian.
Their traditional way of fighting was of lightly armored archers on horseback. After settling in Bactria they added strong infantry and mercenary units of the Greek tradition. Their entry into India under Vima Kadphises introduced elephants in their ranks, as well as heavy-armored cavalry units called cataphracts.
In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the Kushans expanded northwards up to the borders of the powerful Han Empire of China. At times, they allied with the Chinese to defeat invaders such as the Sogdians, and at times fought against them. To the west, they bordered the Parthians, beyond whom lay the mighty Roman Empire. To the south were the Shakas and the Satavahanas. During Kanishka’s time, his local vassal built the Bathinda Fort in Punjab for the Emperor. This fort was strengthened and renamed Qila Mubarak by the later Muslim rulers.
Kushan envoys were present at the court of Emperor Huan of Han, and presented him with gifts. Their Buddhist missionaries travelled over the Silk Route to China and there, spread the message of the Buddha. Similarly, during the reign of the powerful Roman Emperor Hadrian (117-138 CE), ambassadors arrived from Bactria seeking his friendship, probably sent by Kanishka himself. Modern excavations in Gandhara have yielded several Roman imported artifacts, giving proof of the regular international trade.
Kushan Religion- A Fascinating Syncretism
Due to the various cultures and peoples that existed in the lands they conquered, Kushan religion became fascinatingly syncretic, i.e. comprising of elements from a number of existing religions- Greek, Buddhist, Parsi and Hindu. A number of their gods share similarities with one or more gods from these pantheons. For example, they worshipped Mithra and Ahura Mazda of the Parsi (Zoroastrian) faith, Helios (Sun) and Selene (Moon) from the Greek gods, Sarapis of the Egyptians, Buddha and Maitreya of Buddhism and Shiva and his son Kartikeya from Hinduism. However, after Huvishka’s time, only two main deities appear on the coins: Oesho (Ishvara or Shiva) and Ardoksho (Devi). Still, they retained elements of the deities from other religions.
The various emperors also patronized various religions. Kanishka I in particular, constructed a number of various stupas and chaityas. He also helped convene the 4th Great Buddhist Council at Kashmir. Due to the Buddhist influence in Gandhara, a new script ‘Gandhari’ emerged, and archaeologists have found many Buddhist scrolls in this language.
Social, Economic, and Cultural Aspects
Kushan society comprised of a number of different cultures. Due to their embrace of different cultures, most provinces continued their traditions as before, even as the local rulers acknowledged the Kushans as their overlords.
Economically, the Kushans under Kanishka became one of the wealthiest empires in the world. Controlling the trade routes gave them enormous benefits, and they became the center of global trade. The two most powerful empires of Rome and China had to depend on the Kushans to trade, thus generating revenue. At its height, gold was a very common commodity in the Kushan Empire. Thus, India cemented its status as the ‘Golden Bird’ of the Old World!
The art and culture of the Kushans in Gandhara was Greco-Buddhist in nature. It adopted styles of dressing, sculpture and art from both the Greek and Indian cultures. When they conquered Mathura, they also encouraged the further development of the Mathura school of art. Here, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions came together to create a multitude of iconic artwork. Thus, Kushan culture represented a confluence of the western (Greek, Iranian) and eastern (Hindu, Buddhist) art and tradition.
Legacy
The Kushan Empire, caught as it is between the eras of the mighty Mauryas and the golden Guptas, tends to get overlooked in the study of modern Indian history. However, its importance as a major trade center of the world, a link between Rome, Persia, Africa and China, and the prosperity it brought to the Indian Subcontinent cannot be underestimated. The Kushans developed extensive diplomatic and trade relations with all the other powers of the known Old World. Their economic influence helped them attain the status of a major world power alongside Rome, Parthia and China. Under Kanishka the Great, the Kushans restored peace and immense prosperity to the northern and western parts of the Subcontinent. They influenced Central Asian culture with their distinct Greco-Buddhist traditions. Their traditions of religious syncretism show that a simple understanding of different cultures can lead to a new culture- prosperous, inclusive and harmonious.
We can only hope that further research will shed some more light upon this intriguing chapter in history.
– Ashutosh Dixit
Nice. This is completely new information to me.
Not much about this empire is included in our history books which we studied in our schools.Well done keep it up!
Very informative! Great job on highlighting the uniqueness of this empire!
I enjoyed reading your content. It was such thought-provoking content.