Posted on by Ashutosh Dixit · 5 Comments

12 Greatest Empires in Indian History- 4. The Gupta Empire

The Ruins of Nalanda University

Over the years, the Indian Subcontinent has seen many great empires, beginning with the Maurya Empire that covered over 5 million sq. km. of land! In this series of articles, we take a look at some of the greatest empires of the Indian Subcontinent.

The most powerful successors to the Mauryas, the Kushan Empire in North India (including Pakistan) and the Satavahana Empire in the Deccan, were both declining rapidly by 250 CE. They soon fragmented into a number of smaller states, which began scrambling among themselves for supremacy. However, before long, a new power arose that united and stabilized most of the subcontinent, leading to the Golden Age of Classical India- the Guptas!

Many historians consider the glorious reign of the Guptas as the pinnacle of Indian culture and civilization. Let us find out why!

4. The Gupta Empire (250 CE – 550 CE)

Maximum extent of the Gupta Empire under Chandragupta II (414 CE, including tributaries)
Maximum extent of the Gupta Empire under Chandragupta II (414 CE, including tributaries)

One of the most famous Indian Empires in history, the Gupta Empire rose in the 3rd century CE (AD) to cover 3.4 million sq. km. at its zenith. The Guptas originated in north India, most likely in present-day Uttar Pradesh, and were probably local warlords under the Kushan Empire. Belonging probably to the Vaishya class (or Kshatriya as per some sources) of Hindu society, they grew independent with the decline of the Kushans, and began carving out their own kingdom.

Rise

The empire began with Sri Gupta, a vassal of the heavily-declined Kushan Empire, assuming royal status in 240 CE. By 250 CE, he had succeeded in establishing his own rule from Pataliputra (modern-day Patna, Bihar) and stretching till Bengal. Assuming the title of Maharaja, he ruled till 280 CE. His son Ghatotkacha continued his father’s policy of cautious expansion, and arranged his son Chandragupta’s marriage with Princess Kumaradevi of the Lichhavis in 307 CE.

The resulting political alliance helped Ghatotkacha’s son Chandragupta I expand his influence upon coming to power in 320 CE. Over the next 30 years, Chandragupta I conquered the Magadha, Prayag, and Ayodhya regions. His empire now covering all of Bihar and parts of modern UP and Bengal, he adopted the title of Maharajadhiraj, meaning ‘King of Kings’ or ‘Emperor’. The gold coins minted during this period show both Chandragupta and Kumaradevi, denoting her substantial role in this expansion.

Gold coin depicting Maharajadhiraj Chandragupta I and Maharani Kumaradevi; Image by Uploadalt - Own work, photographed at the British Museum, CC BY-SA 3.0
Gold coin depicting Maharajadhiraj Chandragupta I and Maharani Kumaradevi; Image by Uploadalt – Own work, photographed at the British Museum, CC BY-SA 3.0

Zenith of the Empire

However, it was during the reign of their son Samudragupta the Great that the empire extended to become a sub-continental power. Coming to power in 335 CE, Samudragupta defeated 8 northern kings, conquering from the Himalayan foothills upto Malwa (modern Madhya Pradesh)! To the east, he defeated the Vangas to annex Bengal, and then conquered till Chhatisgarh, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh. Several other rulers from Nepal, Assam, Uttarakhand, Karnataka, and Andhra became his tributaries, and the kings of Sri Lanka and South-east Asian countries sent lavish tributes in friendly alliance. He is often called the ‘Napoleon of India’, although, as he lived 1500 years before Napoleon and unlike Napoleon, never lost a battle, it should be the other way round!

Samudragupta the Great, expander of the Gupta Empire; Image Source
Samudragupta the Great, expander of the Gupta Empire; Image Source

To commemorate his victory, he performed the Vedic Ashwamedh yajna, signifying his supreme status as ‘Chakravarti’. Along with his extraordinary military career, he promoted arts and sciences and was an accomplished poet and ‘veena’ player!

In 375 CE, after a failed rule by his son Ramagupta, Samudragupta’s favored son Chandragupta II ascended the throne. He took the empire to the height of its power. Chandragupta’s daughter Prabhavati married into the Vakataka dynasty of the Deccan. With their support he destroyed the Indo-Scythian Shakas of western India to conquer up to the Indus River (modern Pakistan). He also carried out successful campaigns till Kabul, Afghanistan, noted via inscriptions of ‘King Chandra’. In the south, his influence extended up to Karnataka and Telangana through matrimonial alliances with the Vakatakas and Kadambas.

Chandragupta II Vikramaditya, greatest ruler of the Gupta Empire; Image Source: Pinterest
Chandragupta II Vikramaditya, greatest ruler of the Gupta Empire; Image Source: Pinterest

The Golden Age of the Gupta Empire

Chandragupta II ruled for 40 years, and established peace and prosperity across India. Known by the exalted titles ‘Vikramaditya’ and ‘Apratirathi’ (one who has no equal), his influence reached till Iran and South-east Asia. He promoted arts, science, literature, and philosophy, and his court became famous for the ‘Nine Jewels’ or ‘Navaratnas’- celebrated scholars from these fields.

Chandragupta II was followed by his son Kumaragupta I (415-455 CE), who maintained peace and continued the Golden Age. However, around 450 CE the Central Asian Hunas (Hephthalite or Hun tribes) invaded up to the Indus River, and the Prince Skandagupta defeated them. From 455 to 467, Skandagupta ruled in relative peace as well, barring small conflicts with the Vakatakas.

Decline

Skandagupta, the last of the ‘Great Guptas’, was succeded by his half-brother who ruled only for 7 years; and his son who ruled for merely 3 years. During the reign of Budhagupta (476-495 CE), the Huns repeatedly invaded and settled the fertile Punjab plains, greatly weakening the Gupta Empire, and requiring an alliance of Indian kings to repel them. In the time of Narasimhagupta (495-530 CE), the Hun ruler Mihirakula made devastating raids into Gupta territory, extracting tributes. Yashodharman, the King of Malwa, united with Narasimhagupta to completely defeat the Huns at the Battle of Sondani.

Rapidly declining due to devastating raids and administrative incompetence, the Gupta Empire ended in 550 CE with Emperor Vishnugupta’s death.

Political, Military, and Administrative Aspects

The Gupta Empire was a well-administered monarchy with a hierarchy of administrative divisions. The Empire or Rashtra was divided into 26 provinces called Pradeshas ruled by provincial rulers often called Maharajas. These provinces were further divided into Vishayas, each ruled by a Vishayapati with the help of a council of representatives.

The Guptas structured their military similar to the Kushans, along with some technological and tactical innovations such as siege engines and heavy cavalry archers. The army comprised of 4 main units: infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots. Interestingly, based on these units, the strategy game of chaturanga or Chess developed during this era, with the 4 units represented by pawns, knights, rooks, and bishops respectively! The Guptas also had an efficient navy protecting their vast coastline.

Social, Cultural, and Economic Aspects

The Chinese traveler Fa Xian during the time of Chandragupta II wrote that the country was prosperous and peaceful; the urban people cultured and educated, and the government was efficient. Crime was low, and punishments lenient.

The Guptas had trade relations with Rome, China, Persia, and South-east Asia. They exported luxury products like silk, fur, iron products, ivory, pearls to Europe and Central Asia. However, in later years, the destructive Huna invasions disrupted this trade and the accompanying tax revenues.

The Ruins of Nalanda University
The Ruins of Nalanda University; Image by Mrityunjay.nalanda – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0

The Guptas were devout Vaishnava-sect Hindus, and also promoted other sects and religions like Shaivism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Kumaragupta I founded the famous Nalanda University, which became a global center for Buddhist and advanced philosophical studies. While society followed the caste system during this time, it was quite fluid in terms of occupation. The Gupta Emperors, most likely Vaishyas, intermarried with the Kshatriya Lichhavis and the Brahmin Vakatakas without obstacles or disapproval. However, Fa Xian notes that a few castes were considered untouchable because they indulged in hunting, fishing, or tanning professions.

The Guptas were renowned across the world for their patronage of literature, science, mathematics, and art. In fact, their encouragement contributed to the greatest surge in all fields ever seen in India, leading to the Golden Age.

The Gupta Empire– The Golden Age of Classical Hindu India

Literature: Among the Navaratnas of Chandragupta II, Kalidasa is recognized as one of the greatest playwrights and poets in the world, who took Sanskrit literature to its peak with works like ‘Meghdoot’, ‘Raghuvamsha’, ‘Shakuntala’, ‘Kumarasambhav’ and many more. Based on the Vedas, Puranas, Ramayana, and Mahabharata, his works have become extremely influential in history.

Kalidasa writing the 'Meghdoota', 20th century illustration
Kalidasa writing the ‘Meghdoota’, 20th century illustration

Another of the Navaratnas, Amarasimha, was a poet and a Sanskrit grammarian, who wrote the treatise Amarakosha containing a lexicon of 10,000 Sanskrit words. The famous poet Bharavi also probably rose to fame in the later Gupta era.

The philosopher Vatsyayana also wrote the famous Kama Sutra, a treatise on the pursuit of pleasure, and sexual and emotional fulfillment in life during this period.

Medicine: the Navratna Dhanvantari authored a medical glossary. The Sushruta Samhita, one of the oldest medical and surgical books in the world, was completed in its final form during the Gupta Era. It contains surgical techniques for probing, extraction of foreign bodies, cauterization, tooth extraction, caesarian section, fracture management, cataract surgery, and fitting of prosthetics.

Science and Mathematics: In this era, Aryabhata became the most famous Indian mathematician, astronomer, and physicist. In his mathematical treatise ‘Aryabhatiya’ he:

  • Became the first to extensively use the place value system and consider ‘0’ a separate number
  • Laid the foundation of Trigonometry by defining the values of ‘jya’ (sine) and ‘kojya’ (cosine)
  • Became the first to propose the value of ‘Pi’ accurately to 3 decimals
The great Aryabhata, Statue at IUCAA, Pune
The great Aryabhata, Statue at IUCAA, Pune

In his work ‘Arya-Siddhanta’ on astronomy, he proposed some path-breaking discoveries:

  • The earth is round and revolves around its own axis
  • The movement of planets and stars observed is relative to the earth’s motion, thus providing the Laws of Relative Motion
  • The moon and planets reflect the light of the Sun
  • The earth and moon’s shadows cause eclipses, not ‘Rahu’ and ‘Ketu’

In the later Gupta era, Varahamihira wrote the famed Brihatsamhita which contributed to architecture, planetary motions, astrology, agriculture, mathematics etc.

Architecture: We can see several examples of Gupta architecture among the various temples, stupas, inscription pillars and other structures. The Iron Pillar of Delhi, built by Chandragupta II Vikramaditya to record his victories and honor Lord Vishnu, has remained rust-resistant to this day, giving proof of the advanced metallurgical techniques of the era.

Gupta Empire-era architecture (clockwise): Mahabodhi Temple, Dashavtara Temple, Ajanta Caves, Sanchi Temple
Gupta Empire-era architecture (clockwise): Mahabodhi Temple, Dashavtara Temple, Ajanta Caves, Sanchi Temple

But when the Gupta Empire fell, the ensuing chaos resulted in the caste system becoming very rigid, caste intermarriage becoming rare, and a new social order of ‘upper’ and ‘lower’ castes emerging. India became fragmented again into small kingdoms fighting each other, and scientific progress declined. Thus, historians consider the fall of the Gupta Empire as the end of Classical Hindu India.

Legacy

The Gupta Empire marks the pinnacle of classical Indian civilization, primarily Hindu but also Buddhist and Jain cultures. The peace they brought to the Indian Subcontinent resulted in widespread prosperity, low crime rate, extraordinary scientific and artistic advancements.

Today, the Aryabhatta Knowledge University (AKU), Patna for technical, medical, management, and allied professional education, and the Aryabhatta Research Institute of Obseervational Sciences (ARIES), Nainital for astronomy and astrophysics honor the genius mathematician. The scientific and artistic achievements of this era influence the world, which has adopted the Indian numeric system and the use of ‘Zero. Kalidasa’s plays now translated in Persian, Arabic, German, and other European languages. And, we remember Samudragupta the Great and Chandragupta II Vikramaditya as two of the greatest emperors the world has ever seen.

All good things must come to an end, indeed; but they must never be forgotten. The Gupta Empire thus remains a fondly and proudly remembered golden chapter in the history of the Indian Subcontinent.

Posted on by Ashutosh Dixit · 4 Comments

12 Greatest Empires in Indian History- 3. The Satavahana Empire

Pandavleni Caves; Image Source: By Photo Dharma from Sadao, Thailand - 010 Cave 3, Exterior, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=58408349

The history of the Indian Subcontinent has had many glorious chapters over 5000 years of recorded history. In this series of articles, we take a look at some of the greatest empires of the Indian Subcontinent.

The fall of the Maurya Empire, the Iron Age Indian superpower in 180 BCE, gave rise to a number of different dynasties across the subcontinent. In our previous blog, we covered the Kushan Empire that dominated the north after the Mauryas. But what about the south?

After the Mauryan decline, the Deccan plateau region, comprising chiefly of modern-day Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana, was ruled by several tribes, out of which one would soon come to dominate the entire region. The Andhra jatiyas, originating in the Vindhya mountainous ranges, would come together and expand their influence to become the founders of the first Empire of the Deccan- the Satavahana Empire!

3. The Satavahana Empire (100 BCE-25 BCE; revived 60-225 CE)

The Deccan Plateau; Source: Nichalp, CC BY-SA 3.0
The Deccan Plateau; Source: Nichalp, CC BY-SA 3.0

Bounded by the Western Ghats (Sahyadris) to the west and the Eastern Ghats to the East, with the Vindhya and Satpura mountains separating it from the north, the Deccan is a rocky region, giving rise to hardy people. In the earlier days, Ashoka the Great had ruled here, connecting this region to the rest of the Maurya Empire. But after its fall, its regional leaders became powerful and independent. At that time in history, the Andhras, if they were so-called, were an ethnicity not belonging to one particular region, but probably spread across the Deccan. Hence, it is difficult to prove exactly where the Satavahanas originated. However, in the first century BCE, the Satavahanas founded their empire in this region, which at its height stretched from the borders of Rajasthan to Karnataka; and from Gujarat in the west to Kalinga (Orissa) in the east.

Rise and First Fall

According to the Puranas, the Satavahanas were originally governors under the Kanva dynasty that ruled Pataliputra after the Mauryas and Shungas. Sometime during the first century BCE, Simuka (Srimukha) defeated the Kanvas to establish his own dynasty in his native Deccan. Under Simuka and his brother Kanha (Krishna), the Satavahanas established their capital in Pratishthan i.e. modern-day Paithan, Maharashtra. Due to their control of the two chief ports of Kalyan and Sopara, the Satavahanas began trading with the rising superpower in the west- the Roman Empire! Controlling the important ports as well as the key land routes, the Satavahanas grew wealthy and prosperous.

Simuka’s son, Satakarni I succeeded his uncle Kanha to the throne. Taking advantage of the turmoil caused by Greek invasions of northern India, Satakarni I conquered western Malwa, Anupa (Narmada valley) and Vidarbha. He also married Naganika, the daughter of a powerful local ruler, and thus consolidated his rule. He then proclaimed his sovereignty and imperial status by performed the Vedic Ashvamedha and Rajasuya sacrifices. Queen Naganika was a powerful influence in the empire. She was the first Queen in the Indian Subcontinent to have coins minted in her own name! His son Satakarni II conquered eastern Malwa, thus bringing most of the Southern Highway under Satavahana control. Succeeded by his son and grandson, the Satvahanas thus became known as the Dakshinapathapati- the Lords of the South/Southern Highway.

At this time, however, trouble began on the northern borders in Gujarat, where ruled the Shakas or Westerns Satraps. These were Indo-Scythian noblemen of Iranian descent who ruled parts of western India. Several invasions occurred, during which the Western Satraps conquered territory upto Nashik and Pune. Losing trade routes greatly diminished the Satavahana Empire’s power during the first half of 1st century CE (AD). The Shaka King Nahapana ruled much of the former Satavahana territory.

Revival and Zenith of the Empire

This changed when a young Gautamiputra Satakarni came to power. Though historians remain divided about his exact reign, the most probable period seems to be 60-85 CE. He began his reign by uniting the scattered forces of the Deccan, and drove back the Shakas. Winning multiple victories, he also engaged northern powers such as the Pahlavas (Indo-Parthians) and the Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) who ruled western and northern India. In 78 CE, Gautamiputra Satakarni dealt a severe blow to a combined coalition of his enemies, decisively reestablishing his supremacy in the Deccan, Malwa, and Gujarat.

Gautamiputra Satakarni, greatest Emperor of the Satavahana Empire; Source: రహ్మానుద్దీన్, CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
Gautamiputra Satakarni, greatest Emperor of the Satavahana Empire; Source: రహ్మానుద్దీన్, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

To commemorate the occasion, he performed the Ashwamedha and Rajasuya yajnas. At the same time, the Shaka King Nahapana is believed to have passed away, and Chashtana ascended to power. The victory of Gautamiputra Satakarni and his Satavahanas is believed to have started the Shalivahana Shaka era or Shaka calendar of the Hindus, although this is a debated issue. His influence also extended to cover the Eastern Deccan.

His son Vasishtiputra Pulumavi consolidated his hold over the eastern Deccan, so that the Satavahana Empire now extended from west coast to east coast; and from the edge of Rajasthan to southern Karnataka. Conflict with the Shakas flared up again during the reign of Vasishtiputra Satakarni, brother and successor of Pulumavi. To forge an alliance, he married the daughter of Shaka King Rudradaman.

Decline

However, despite the matrimonial relations, Vasishtiputra Satakarni lost two wars to his father-in-law, who only spared him because of their relation. This greatly lowered Satavahana prestige. The Shakas again captured much of the western territories except Nashik and Pune, and Satavahana power now came to be concentrated at Amaravati in modern-day Andhra Pradesh.

His grandson Yajna Satakarni revived the empire around 160 CE, taking back most of the western territories. However, his successors could not keep the central power strong, and the Empire soon fragmented into five different parts, marking the end of the mighty Satavahanas.

Political, Military, and Administrative Aspects

The Satavahanas followed the administrative guidelines of the Shastras, the ancient Vedic treatises and scriptures. As with most post-Maurya kingdoms, they also inherited a general structure of administration. However, the Satavahana government was less bureaucratically top-heavy than the Mauryans. The general administrative organization was:

  • Rajan, the hereditary rulers
  • Rajas, petty princes who struck coins in their own names
  • Maharathis, powerful hereditary lords who could grant villages in their own names and maintained matrimonial relations with the ruling family
  • Mahabhojas
  • Mahasenapati (civil administrator/governor)
  • Mahatalavara

The Kumaras or royal princes, appointed as viceroys of the provinces, gained experience in administration. Aharas were the major subdivisions of the Satavahana Empire, consisting of nagaras (cities), nigama (market towns) and gama (villages).

The Satavahana military consisted of infantry, cavalry, and elephants. The infantry usually formed the vanguard and the horses and elephants flanked them on either side. Spears, swords, and axes were common weapons. The King and the nobility were expected to lead the armies from the front.

The Satavahanas, since their rise to power, had to contend with the north-western Shakas for supremacy. Beyond the Shakas lay the territories of the Pahlavas and the Indo-Greeks with whom also some clashes happened. After Gautamiputra’s victories, peace was established- albeit briefly. Although the Satavahanas had the larger empire and arguably the greater impact upon history, the different dynasties of the Shakas managed to hold on to their territories in western India for almost 2 centuries after the Satavahanas, ultimately being defeated by the Guptas.

Maximum Extent of Satavahana Empire (at different periods marked by continued and dotted lines), along with neighboring powers
Maximum Extent of Satavahana Empire (at different periods marked by continued and dotted lines), along with neighboring Western Satraps, Kushan Empire, Cholas and Pandyas

To the south, they maintained trade relations with the various tribes, as well as the Three Kingdoms- Chola, Chera, and Pandya- that controlled most of modern-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

However, the Satavahanas are famed for their control over the sea routes through their ports. Called ‘Trisamudrishwara- The Lords of the Three Oceans’, they heavily promoted international trade. To the west, they traded extensively with Rome, while to the east their mariners went to south-east Asia. The resultant increase in prosperity mirrors that of the Kushans in the north, who were their contemporaries.

Social, Cultural, and Economic Aspects

The Satavahanas were probably Brahmins, with Gautamiputra even described as ‘Ekabrahmana’ which can be translated as ‘peerless Brahmin’. However, some sources have also suggested a Kshatriya origin. Though their culture was typically Hindu, their subjects freely practiced various religions. In particular, the Satavahanas supported and gave alms to Hindu as well as Buddhist priests. The Buddhist caves at Naneghat, for example, were excavated during the Satavahana reign. These caves contain the inscription of Naganika, which mentions that her husband Satakarni I performed several Hindu yajnas. The inscription also records large fees paid to Brahmin priests and attendees for these sacrifices. Satakarni II also commissioned the building of the elaborate gates at the famous Buddhist stupa at Sanchi.

The Pandavleni Buddhist Caves at Nashik were also developed under the Satavahana Empire, with donations by local merchants and administrators. The interesting thing here is that, although the area was sometimes under Shaka rule and sometimes under the Satavahanas, both the dynasties contributed to the development of these religious places!

Agriculture, of course, was the backbone of the Satavahana economy; and national and international trade was one of the chief sources of income. After Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar conquered Egypt, he opened up new trade routes to India, where the Satavahanas exported prized commodities like cotton, silk, pearls, and spices. Interestingly, during the excavations at the Roman city of Pompeii, destroyed due to volcanic eruptions, archaeologists discovered a statue of the goddess Lakshmi, dating back to the Satavahana era. Known today as the Pompeii Lakshmi, it gives us an idea of the far-reaching interactions between Rome and Paithan!

Pompeii Lakshmi; Source: By Sailko – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0

In the latter half of the 2nd century, the focus of trade shifted to the eastern coast. Amaravati became the centre of power. The remains of a magnificent Buddhist Stupa in Amaravati indicate the prosperity of the Satavahana Empire.

The Satavahanas also used the Prakrit language more than Sanskrit. During the reign of Emperor Hala, the Gaha Sattasai (Gatha Saptashati), a compilation of poems describing the joy and torment of love was written. His minister Gunadhya is also supposed to be the author of the lost epic, Brihatkatha. Under Satavahana rule, women received higher education. Many queens ruled as regents while their sons were growing up; and as seen by the example of Naganika, often took part in the affairs of state. As each ruler had multiple wives, the princes took their first names from their mother, both to distinguish themselves and honor their parentage.

Legacy

The Satavahanas ruled over the Deccan for more than two centuries. The various caves at Pandavleni, Naneghat and other places, the temples and stupas, the large number of coins found, attest to their historical importance. The Republic of India adopted the Shalivahana Shaka Era calendar as its national calendar. The historic Dakshinapatha- the Southern Highway connecting the Deccan to the North- roughly corresponds with today’s NH7.  

Gautamiputra Satakarni statue in Amaravati regional capital of Satavahana Empire; Source: Krishna Chaitanya Velaga, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
Gautamiputra Satakarni statue in Amaravati; Source: Krishna Chaitanya Velaga, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0 via Wikimedia Commons

Gautamiputra’s victory over the rulers of Scythian, Persian and Greek descent, cemented Satavahana legacy as the ‘sons of the soil’, who defended against foreign invasions. At the same time, their support to all religions, as well as the growth and expansion of trade, shows their benevolence and economic acumen. Indeed, there is much to learn from the First Empire of the Deccan!

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on by Ashutosh Dixit · 4 Comments

12 Greatest Empires in Indian History- 2. The Kushan Empire

Bathinda Fort (Qila Mubarak), Punjab

The Indian Subcontinent has been host to a number of powerful empires and dynasties throughout the ages. In this series of articles, we take a look at 12 of the greatest empires in the subcontinent’s history- empires that have shaped the story of the land and left behind a legacy that persists to this day.

In Part 1 of the series, we covered the well-known Maurya Empire, considered by many to be the first and most extensive historical empire in the subcontinent. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya and his guru Chanakya, it rose to its zenith under Ashoka the Great, and declined after his death to formally end in 180 BCE. But what happened after that? The period between the fall of the Mauryas and the rise of the Guptas in the 3rd century CE was shrouded in mystery for a long time. Historians found mentions in the Roman, Parthian and Chinese records of a Bactrian empire and culture, but knew nothing about who they were. It was only in the 19th century that the modern archaeological study revealed the existence of a powerful empire that dominated Central Asia and the northern Indian subcontinent, thus filling in the historical gaps.

The fall of the Maurya Empire gave rise to a number of new kingdoms formed out of its various provinces. The Shungas ruled in Bihar, Bengal and East India, while the Mahameghavahanas ruled Kalinga (Odisha) and the Indo-Parthians and Indo-Scythians ruled the northern and western parts of the subcontinent. For almost two centuries, a number of successive kingdoms arose, until one by one, they fell to the influence of an unlikely new power- the Kushans.

2. The Kushan Empire (30 CE- 270 CE; highly diminished rule till 350 CE)

What if you were to hear about an empire that lasted for almost 3 centuries, consisted of wealthy metropolitan cities, and was home to people of different ethnicities worshiping a number of different gods? And yet, these people, living ‘luxurious lifestyles’ as per the Chinese, left virtually no written records of their exploits or histories?

The Kushan Empire reigned supreme over a large part of Asia, approximately 2 million sq. km., for almost 200 years. The Kushans were part of the Yuezhi tribes that migrated to the region of Bactria. Settling there, they adopted major elements of the prevalent Greek culture. Their origin is most likely to have been Indo-European. In any case, the 5 tribes of the Yuezhi ruled in Bactria until the Guishang or Kushan united them to form an empire. At its height, this empire ruled over parts of modern-day Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Northern India.

However, there are almost no records written by the Kushans about themselves. We find many records from Roman, Chinese and other writers. Similarly, there are no paintings that have survived to this era. Hence, for most of history, people did not know much about them, and it is only over the last 200 years that we have begun to learn their story. Let us, then, take a look at this forgotten empire of the Indian Subcontinent.

The Rise

The first well-recorded ruler of the Kushans is known as Kajula Kadphises. He rose to prominence around 40-50 CE (AD) by defeating the other 4 tribes and became their emperor. Expanding towards the east, he defeated the Indo-Parthian kingdom in Afghanistan and north-western part of the Indian Subcontinent. Along with his son Vima Takto, he conquered the city of Kabul and pressed onward.

Vima Takto became Emperor around 90 CE, and extended his empire north into Bactria and the Tarim Basin in China. During his time, envoys were exchanged between the Han Empire of China and the Kushans. Though he was probably Parsi (Zoroastrian) by faith, during his times a syncretic tradition of religions began. After his death, his son Vima Kadphises increased his territory in Central Asia as well as India and encouraged extensive trade with the Roman Empire to the West, and the Han Chinese Empire to the East. The Kushan Empire became the centre of trade in the Old World, and increasing prosperity saw Vima introduce golden coinage in addition to silver and copper.

Gold Coin of Vima Kadphises; Source: Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com / CC BY-SA (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)
Gold coin of Emperor Vima Kadphises (left) depicting Lord Shiva (right); Source: Classical Numismatic Group, Inc., CC BY-SA

Zenith of the Empire

It was under the 23-year reign of his son Kanishka I that the Kushans reached the maximum territorial extent. The Kushan Empire extended from Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, to Ujjain in the south, and Afghanistan in the northwest to Pataliputra (Patna) in the southeast. Some territories in the Tarim Basin of China are also considered to be tributaries of Kanishka.

Samrat Kanishka the Great of the Kushan Empire; Source: theweek.in
Samrat Kanishka the Great; Source: theweek.in

Kanishka controlled the Silk Route that connected Rome to China, and thus all trade happened under his benevolent gaze. His empire grew in wealth and splendor, and he established several trade centers. His coinage includes a diverse symbolism- Greek, Parsi, Buddhist, Hindu, Mesopotamian- proof of the syncretic religious traditions in his domain. He also commissioned the massive Buddhist Kanishka Stupa at his capital Purushapura (Peshawar), where pilgrims visited from all over Asia. His benevolent administration earned him the appellation of Kanishka the Great!

The golden age of the Kushan Empire continued under Kanishka’s son Huvishka, who established greater control over Mathura and consolidated his father’s territories. A devotee of Shiva, his coins bore the image of Mahadeva and his son Kartikeya. His son, Emperor Vasudeva I established peaceful relations with the new Sassanian dynasty in Persia and continued prosperous rule from 191-225 CE.

Maximum extent of the Kushan Empire (dotted line); Source: By PHGCOM - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2110032
Maximum extent of the Kushan Empire (dotted line); Source: By PHGCOM – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2110032

The Decline

Unfortunately, Vasudeva I was the last of the Great Kushans. His son Kanishka II had to face repeated invasions from the Sassanian Empire, and lost his territories in Central Asia. His successor Vasishka I made some efforts at consolidation during his 30-year reign, but after his death the Kushans declined.

From 270 CE onwards, the rulers, known to history as ‘Little Kushans’ mainly controlled the Punjab area, losing the east and south to the Gupta Empire and the northwest to the Persians. The last ruler Kipunada ruled only western Punjab as a vassal of the powerful Emperor Samudragupta I. With his death in 350 CE came the end of the once-mighty Kushan dynasty.

Political, Military, and Administrative Aspects

Purushapura was the original stronghold from the times of Kajula Kadphises, and became the capital of the Kushans. As their borders expanded, they established two more provincial capitals- Bagram (Afghanistan) and Mathura (India) for better administrative control. In India, they allowed the kings they conquered to continue ruling as their vassals, hence the religions, culture and military of these states remained essentially Indian.

Their traditional way of fighting was of lightly armored archers on horseback. After settling in Bactria they added strong infantry and mercenary units of the Greek tradition. Their entry into India under Vima Kadphises introduced elephants in their ranks, as well as heavy-armored cavalry units called cataphracts.

In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the Kushans expanded northwards up to the borders of the powerful Han Empire of China. At times, they allied with the Chinese to defeat invaders such as the Sogdians, and at times fought against them. To the west, they bordered the Parthians, beyond whom lay the mighty Roman Empire. To the south were the Shakas and the Satavahanas. During Kanishka’s time, his local vassal built the Bathinda Fort in Punjab for the Emperor. This fort was strengthened and renamed Qila Mubarak by the later Muslim rulers.

Bathinda Fort (Qila Mubarak) of the Kushan Empire, Punjab
Bathinda Fort (Qila Mubarak), Punjab

Kushan envoys were present at the court of Emperor Huan of Han, and presented him with gifts. Their Buddhist missionaries travelled over the Silk Route to China and there, spread the message of the Buddha. Similarly, during the reign of the powerful Roman Emperor Hadrian (117-138 CE), ambassadors arrived from Bactria seeking his friendship, probably sent by Kanishka himself. Modern excavations in Gandhara have yielded several Roman imported artifacts, giving proof of the regular international trade.

Kushan Religion- A Fascinating Syncretism

Due to the various cultures and peoples that existed in the lands they conquered, Kushan religion became fascinatingly syncretic, i.e. comprising of elements from a number of existing religions- Greek, Buddhist, Parsi and Hindu. A number of their gods share similarities with one or more gods from these pantheons. For example, they worshipped Mithra and Ahura Mazda of the Parsi (Zoroastrian) faith, Helios (Sun) and Selene (Moon) from the Greek gods, Sarapis of the Egyptians, Buddha and Maitreya of Buddhism and Shiva and his son Kartikeya from Hinduism. However, after Huvishka’s time, only two main deities appear on the coins: Oesho (Ishvara or Shiva) and Ardoksho (Devi). Still, they retained elements of the deities from other religions.

The various emperors also patronized various religions. Kanishka I in particular, constructed a number of various stupas and chaityas. He also helped convene the 4th Great Buddhist Council at Kashmir. Due to the Buddhist influence in Gandhara, a new script ‘Gandhari’ emerged, and archaeologists have found many Buddhist scrolls in this language.

Social, Economic, and Cultural Aspects

Kushan society comprised of a number of different cultures. Due to their embrace of different cultures, most provinces continued their traditions as before, even as the local rulers acknowledged the Kushans as their overlords.

Economically, the Kushans under Kanishka became one of the wealthiest empires in the world. Controlling the trade routes gave them enormous benefits, and they became the center of global trade. The two most powerful empires of Rome and China had to depend on the Kushans to trade, thus generating revenue. At its height, gold was a very common commodity in the Kushan Empire. Thus, India cemented its status as the ‘Golden Bird’ of the Old World!

The art and culture of the Kushans in Gandhara was Greco-Buddhist in nature. It adopted styles of dressing, sculpture and art from both the Greek and Indian cultures. When they conquered Mathura, they also encouraged the further development of the Mathura school of art. Here, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions came together to create a multitude of iconic artwork. Thus, Kushan culture represented a confluence of the western (Greek, Iranian) and eastern (Hindu, Buddhist) art and tradition.

Statue of Kanishka the Great at Mathura, with the inscription: Maharaj Rajadhiraj Devaputra Kanishka; Image Source
Statue of Kanishka the Great at Mathura, with the inscription: Maharaj Rajadhiraj Devaputra Kanishka; Image Source

Legacy

The Kushan Empire, caught as it is between the eras of the mighty Mauryas and the golden Guptas, tends to get overlooked in the study of modern Indian history. However, its importance as a major trade center of the world, a link between Rome, Persia, Africa and China, and the prosperity it brought to the Indian Subcontinent cannot be underestimated. The Kushans developed extensive diplomatic and trade relations with all the other powers of the known Old World. Their economic influence helped them attain the status of a major world power alongside Rome, Parthia and China. Under Kanishka the Great, the Kushans restored peace and immense prosperity to the northern and western parts of the Subcontinent. They influenced Central Asian culture with their distinct Greco-Buddhist traditions. Their traditions of religious syncretism show that a simple understanding of different cultures can lead to a new culture- prosperous, inclusive and harmonious.

We can only hope that further research will shed some more light upon this intriguing chapter in history.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on by Ashutosh Dixit · 2 Comments

12 Greatest Empires in Indian History- 1. The Maurya Empire

Pillar of Maurya Empire of Ashoka

India. The very name evokes a sense of mythic grandeur, of ancient culture, magnificent history and mystic spirituality. The Indian Subcontinent, which makes up most of South Asia, has historically enjoyed a pre-eminent position in the world. Due to its rich and varied natural resources, its fabled wealth, and its geographic position, the region has a huge and multi-cultural history. Since as far back as the early Vedic period, hundreds of dynasties and cultures, conquerors and kings, have sought to establish their dominion over the ‘Sonchidiya’, as it was known.

In this series of articles, we take a look at the 12 Greatest Empires to have been established in the Indian Subcontinent, before the British rule. These empires have been listed chronologically in the order of their rise, and selected based on a number of parameters, such as the total land mass governed, the contribution to arts and culture, and their political, economic and global significance.

1. The Maurya Empire (322 BCE – 185 BCE)

Maximum Extent of the Maurya Empire; Image Source: Avantiputra7 / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)
Maximum Extent of the Maurya Empire; Image Source: Avantiputra7 / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)

The Maurya Empire was the predominant power in all of South Asia during the Iron Age. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya, it grew to cover an area of 5 million sq. km., stretching out over the present day countries of India (excluding the southernmost strip), Pakistan, Afghanistan and small parts of Iran. The Maurya Empire was the first to effectively unite the entire Indian Subcontinent, and remains the largest Indian Empire till date.

The Rise

In the wake of Alexander the Great’s retreat from India, the north-western parts were under the rule of his generals like Seleucus I Nicator. The rest of India was ruled by a number of independent kingdoms, the largest and most powerful among them being Magadha. The Nanda dynasty that ruled Magadha had become proud and decadent under the incumbent ruler, Dhana Nanda. It was then that the famed philosopher Chanakya and his young student, the charismatic warrior Chandragupta Maurya, rose in rebellion. Securing allies and followers, Chandragupta dethroned the tyrant Dhana Nanda and found himself the Samrat (Emperor) of Magadha.

Chandragupta Maurya, 1st Maurya Emperor
Representative modern statue of Chandragupta Maurya, 1st Emperor of the Indian Subcontinent

From there, he launched a campaign westward, soundly defeating Seleucus and his Greek forces. Seleucus made peace with Chandragupta, surrendered territories up to Kandahar and gave his daughter to the young king in marriage. Then Chandragupta rode southward, conquering all of North India and parts of the Deccan plateau, and consolidated it by establishing a competent administration. After a glorious rule of 25 years, he abdicated the throne and became a Jain monk.

The Expansion

Bindusara, the capable son of Chandragupta, further expanded his dominions and conquered the remainder of the Deccan Plateau. His empire now stretched from eastern Iran up to modern-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala. However, the strong eastern kingdom of Kalinga (modern Odisha and north Andhra Pradesh) still resisted Mauryan domination.

After Bindusara’s death, his son Ashoka succeeded to the throne. This young Prince had already made a name for himself as ‘Ashoka the Fierce’ during his father’s wars. Well-trained in warfare and strategy, the ambitious, ruthless Emperor decided to finish the conquest of the entire Subcontinent and waged a long, bloody war with Kalinga. In the end, victory was his!

Zenith of the Empire

Representative Bust of Emperor Ashoka the Great, 3rd Maurya Emperor
Representative Bust of Emperor Ashoka the Great, 3rd Maurya Emperor

But though Ashoka achieved victory, the war resulted in casualties of more than a hundred thousand, horrifying the young Emperor. Already a keen student of Buddhism, this resulted in a change of heart for him, and he embraced the path of peace.

Laying down his arms, he went so far as to ban recreational hunting and promoting environmental conservation. He supported Buddhism throughout his Empire, and sent missionaries abroad. His envoys spread out as far as China, Sri Lanka, and South East Asia, preaching Buddhism and peace. He developed infrastructure throughout his empire and maintained friendly relations with all his neighbouring rulers. His magnanimous nature and the prosperity of his Empire earned him the name Ashoka the Great, and his policies and legacy remain the foundation even of modern India.

The Decline

Ashoka’s eldest sons Tivala and Kunala predeceased him, while his third son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra are believed to have become Buddhist monks. Hence, his grandson Dasharath took the throne after his death. Unfortunately, he could not keep the huge empire together for long. By the time of his death, the north-western provinces, as well as Gujarat, Maharashtra and Andhra had seceded from the Empire. While Dasharath’s half-brother and successor Samrat Samprati tried to restore Maurya power in the south, his successors proved incapable of competent rule.

The Maurya Empire formally came to an end when an ambitious general Pushyamitra Shunga assassinated Samrat Brihadratha and founded his own dynasty.

Political, Military, and Administrative Aspects

Politically, the Empire was split into 4 provinces- Tosali (east), Ujjain (west), Suvarnagiri (south), Takshashila (north) – with the imperial capital at Pataliputra (Patna). The Samrat or Emperor was the Head of State, and took policy decisions with the advice of an organized Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers). The Kumara or Crown Prince administered the provinces, similarly assisted by Mahamatyas and a council of ministers.

A large, highly disciplined and professional army protected the Empire’s boundaries and maintained peace and order. According to the Greek historian Megasthenes, the Maurya Empire wielded one of the largest militaries in the world during the Iron Age, with 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots and 9,000 war elephants. A vast espionage system conducted intelligence activities for internal and external security.

In line with the extensive bureaucracy designed and detailed by Chanakya in his treatise Arthashastra, a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. Trade and enterprise were public-private affairs: the state could own and engage in business activities just like ordinary citizens could form corporations of their own. The Empire maintained extensive diplomatic and trade ties with the Persians and the Greek city-states and satrapies to the west, as well as with the kingdoms of South-East Asia.

Social, Economic, and Cultural Aspects

The Buddhist Stupa at Sanchi
The Buddhist Stupa at Sanchi

The Maurya Empire comprised of Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists, along with a number of other sects, and promoted peaceful relations both internally and externally. The period saw trade relations established with the Middle East, Europe, China as well as South East Asia. Under Mauryan patronage, universities like Takshashila and Nalanda became international hubs for education and spirituality.

The unification of the region saw the introduction of a common currency, improved and fair taxation under a central government, and a number of public works such as water tanks and roads. A number of temples, stupas and other structures were built, the most famous being the Sanchi Buddhist Stupa. The renowned edicts of Ashoka, erected in various parts of the subcontinent, proclaimed his rules and policies for all his citizens to understand.

Artistic depiction of Guru Chanakya, mastermind behind the Maurya Empire

Chanakya Vishnugupta, the architect of this mighty empire, wrote the Arthashastra and the Chanakya Neeti treatises. Today, these are considered pioneering works in the fields of economics and political science on par with Machiavelli’s ‘The Prince’.

Legacy

The Maurya Empire under Chandragupta and his descendants established the identity of the Indian Subcontinent as one united entity, known as ‘Hind’ by the Persians and ‘India’ by the Greeks. Due to the political and economic stability, the trade relations established with other nations made India’s wealth and power known to the rest of the world. Even today, when the Subcontinent has been divided into 5-6 different nations, the Mauryas cast a long shadow over its history.

Lion Capital of Ashoka, Vidhana Soudha; Image Source: © Moheen Reeyad / Wikimedia Commons / "Lion Capital of Ashoka, Vidhana Soudha (03)"
Lion Capital of Ashoka, Vidhana Soudha; Image Source: © Moheen Reeyad / Wikimedia Commons / “Lion Capital of Ashoka, Vidhana Soudha (03)”

The Republic of India adopted the Lion Capital at Sarnath as the national emblem, symbolizing victory. The Ashoka Chakra, adopted from the Buddhist Dhamma Chakra, sits at the centre of the national flag symbolizing righteousness.

Chandragupta Maurya first built the famous Grand Trunk Road which stretches from Chittagong, Bangladesh to Kabul, Afghanistan and connects the Subcontinent to Central Asia; while Ashoka later expanded on it. Rebuilt and repaired many times from then till now, it remains one of the most important roads in Indian history. The treatises of Chanakya continue to educate modern India on economics and politics, and the numerous stupas, edicts and sculptures forever stand testament to the greatest empire of the Indian Subcontinent.

– Ashutosh Dixit