Indian History Archives - Words and Swords

Posted on October 2, 2021October 10, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 5 Comments

12 Greatest Empires in Indian History- 4. The Gupta Empire

Over the years, the Indian Subcontinent has seen many great empires, beginning with the Maurya Empire that covered over 5 million sq. km. of land! In this series of articles, we take a look at some of the greatest empires of the Indian Subcontinent.

The most powerful successors to the Mauryas, the Kushan Empire in North India (including Pakistan) and the Satavahana Empire in the Deccan, were both declining rapidly by 250 CE. They soon fragmented into a number of smaller states, which began scrambling among themselves for supremacy. However, before long, a new power arose that united and stabilized most of the subcontinent, leading to the Golden Age of Classical India- the Guptas!

Many historians consider the glorious reign of the Guptas as the pinnacle of Indian culture and civilization. Let us find out why!

4. The Gupta Empire (250 CE – 550 CE)

Maximum extent of the Gupta Empire under Chandragupta II (414 CE, including tributaries)

One of the most famous Indian Empires in history, the Gupta Empire rose in the 3^rd century CE (AD) to cover 3.4 million sq. km. at its zenith. The Guptas originated in north India, most likely in present-day Uttar Pradesh, and were probably local warlords under the Kushan Empire. Belonging probably to the Vaishya class (or Kshatriya as per some sources) of Hindu society, they grew independent with the decline of the Kushans, and began carving out their own kingdom.

Rise

The empire began with Sri Gupta, a vassal of the heavily-declined Kushan Empire, assuming royal status in 240 CE. By 250 CE, he had succeeded in establishing his own rule from Pataliputra (modern-day Patna, Bihar) and stretching till Bengal. Assuming the title of Maharaja, he ruled till 280 CE. His son Ghatotkacha continued his father’s policy of cautious expansion, and arranged his son Chandragupta’s marriage with Princess Kumaradevi of the Lichhavis in 307 CE.

The resulting political alliance helped Ghatotkacha’s son Chandragupta I expand his influence upon coming to power in 320 CE. Over the next 30 years, Chandragupta I conquered the Magadha, Prayag, and Ayodhya regions. His empire now covering all of Bihar and parts of modern UP and Bengal, he adopted the title of Maharajadhiraj, meaning ‘King of Kings’ or ‘Emperor’. The gold coins minted during this period show both Chandragupta and Kumaradevi, denoting her substantial role in this expansion.

Gold coin depicting Maharajadhiraj Chandragupta I and Maharani Kumaradevi; Image by Uploadalt - Own work, photographed at the British Museum, CC BY-SA 3.0 — *Gold coin depicting Maharajadhiraj Chandragupta I and Maharani Kumaradevi; Image by Uploadalt – Own work, photographed at the British Museum, CC BY-SA 3.0*

Zenith of the Empire

However, it was during the reign of their son Samudragupta the Great that the empire extended to become a sub-continental power. Coming to power in 335 CE, Samudragupta defeated 8 northern kings, conquering from the Himalayan foothills upto Malwa (modern Madhya Pradesh)! To the east, he defeated the Vangas to annex Bengal, and then conquered till Chhatisgarh, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh. Several other rulers from Nepal, Assam, Uttarakhand, Karnataka, and Andhra became his tributaries, and the kings of Sri Lanka and South-east Asian countries sent lavish tributes in friendly alliance. He is often called the ‘Napoleon of India’, although, as he lived 1500 years before Napoleon and unlike Napoleon, never lost a battle, it should be the other way round!

*Samudragupta the Great, expander of the Gupta Empire; Image Source*

To commemorate his victory, he performed the Vedic Ashwamedh yajna, signifying his supreme status as ‘Chakravarti’. Along with his extraordinary military career, he promoted arts and sciences and was an accomplished poet and ‘veena’ player!

In 375 CE, after a failed rule by his son Ramagupta, Samudragupta’s favored son Chandragupta II ascended the throne. He took the empire to the height of its power. Chandragupta’s daughter Prabhavati married into the Vakataka dynasty of the Deccan. With their support he destroyed the Indo-Scythian Shakas of western India to conquer up to the Indus River (modern Pakistan). He also carried out successful campaigns till Kabul, Afghanistan, noted via inscriptions of ‘King Chandra’. In the south, his influence extended up to Karnataka and Telangana through matrimonial alliances with the Vakatakas and Kadambas.

*Chandragupta II Vikramaditya, greatest ruler of the Gupta Empire; Image Source: Pinterest*

The Golden Age of the Gupta Empire

Chandragupta II ruled for 40 years, and established peace and prosperity across India. Known by the exalted titles ‘Vikramaditya’ and ‘Apratirathi’ (one who has no equal), his influence reached till Iran and South-east Asia. He promoted arts, science, literature, and philosophy, and his court became famous for the ‘Nine Jewels’ or ‘Navaratnas’- celebrated scholars from these fields.

Chandragupta II was followed by his son Kumaragupta I (415-455 CE), who maintained peace and continued the Golden Age. However, around 450 CE the Central Asian Hunas (Hephthalite or Hun tribes) invaded up to the Indus River, and the Prince Skandagupta defeated them. From 455 to 467, Skandagupta ruled in relative peace as well, barring small conflicts with the Vakatakas.

Decline

Skandagupta, the last of the ‘Great Guptas’, was succeded by his half-brother who ruled only for 7 years; and his son who ruled for merely 3 years. During the reign of Budhagupta (476-495 CE), the Huns repeatedly invaded and settled the fertile Punjab plains, greatly weakening the Gupta Empire, and requiring an alliance of Indian kings to repel them. In the time of Narasimhagupta (495-530 CE), the Hun ruler Mihirakula made devastating raids into Gupta territory, extracting tributes. Yashodharman, the King of Malwa, united with Narasimhagupta to completely defeat the Huns at the Battle of Sondani.

Rapidly declining due to devastating raids and administrative incompetence, the Gupta Empire ended in 550 CE with Emperor Vishnugupta’s death.

Political, Military, and Administrative Aspects

The Gupta Empire was a well-administered monarchy with a hierarchy of administrative divisions. The Empire or Rashtra was divided into 26 provinces called Pradeshas ruled by provincial rulers often called Maharajas. These provinces were further divided into Vishayas, each ruled by a Vishayapati with the help of a council of representatives.

The Guptas structured their military similar to the Kushans, along with some technological and tactical innovations such as siege engines and heavy cavalry archers. The army comprised of 4 main units: infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots. Interestingly, based on these units, the strategy game of chaturanga or Chess developed during this era, with the 4 units represented by pawns, knights, rooks, and bishops respectively! The Guptas also had an efficient navy protecting their vast coastline.

Social, Cultural, and Economic Aspects

The Chinese traveler Fa Xian during the time of Chandragupta II wrote that the country was prosperous and peaceful; the urban people cultured and educated, and the government was efficient. Crime was low, and punishments lenient.

The Guptas had trade relations with Rome, China, Persia, and South-east Asia. They exported luxury products like silk, fur, iron products, ivory, pearls to Europe and Central Asia. However, in later years, the destructive Huna invasions disrupted this trade and the accompanying tax revenues.

The Guptas were devout Vaishnava-sect Hindus, and also promoted other sects and religions like Shaivism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Kumaragupta I founded the famous Nalanda University, which became a global center for Buddhist and advanced philosophical studies. While society followed the caste system during this time, it was quite fluid in terms of occupation. The Gupta Emperors, most likely Vaishyas, intermarried with the Kshatriya Lichhavis and the Brahmin Vakatakas without obstacles or disapproval. However, Fa Xian notes that a few castes were considered untouchable because they indulged in hunting, fishing, or tanning professions.

The Guptas were renowned across the world for their patronage of literature, science, mathematics, and art. In fact, their encouragement contributed to the greatest surge in all fields ever seen in India, leading to the Golden Age.

The Gupta Empire– The Golden Age of Classical Hindu India

Literature: Among the Navaratnas of Chandragupta II, Kalidasa is recognized as one of the greatest playwrights and poets in the world, who took Sanskrit literature to its peak with works like ‘Meghdoot’, ‘Raghuvamsha’, ‘Shakuntala’, ‘Kumarasambhav’ and many more. Based on the Vedas, Puranas, Ramayana, and Mahabharata, his works have become extremely influential in history.

Kalidasa writing the 'Meghdoota', 20th century illustration — *Kalidasa writing the ‘Meghdoota’, 20th century illustration*

Another of the Navaratnas, Amarasimha, was a poet and a Sanskrit grammarian, who wrote the treatise Amarakosha containing a lexicon of 10,000 Sanskrit words. The famous poet Bharavi also probably rose to fame in the later Gupta era.

The philosopher Vatsyayana also wrote the famous Kama Sutra, a treatise on the pursuit of pleasure, and sexual and emotional fulfillment in life during this period.

Medicine: the Navratna Dhanvantari authored a medical glossary. The Sushruta Samhita, one of the oldest medical and surgical books in the world, was completed in its final form during the Gupta Era. It contains surgical techniques for probing, extraction of foreign bodies, cauterization, tooth extraction, caesarian section, fracture management, cataract surgery, and fitting of prosthetics.

Science and Mathematics: In this era, Aryabhata became the most famous Indian mathematician, astronomer, and physicist. In his mathematical treatise ‘Aryabhatiya’ he:

Became the first to extensively use the place value system and consider ‘0’ a separate number
Laid the foundation of Trigonometry by defining the values of ‘jya’ (sine) and ‘kojya’ (cosine)
Became the first to propose the value of ‘Pi’ accurately to 3 decimals

*The great Aryabhata, Statue at IUCAA, Pune*

In his work ‘Arya-Siddhanta’ on astronomy, he proposed some path-breaking discoveries:

The earth is round and revolves around its own axis
The movement of planets and stars observed is relative to the earth’s motion, thus providing the Laws of Relative Motion
The moon and planets reflect the light of the Sun
The earth and moon’s shadows cause eclipses, not ‘Rahu’ and ‘Ketu’

In the later Gupta era, Varahamihira wrote the famed Brihatsamhita which contributed to architecture, planetary motions, astrology, agriculture, mathematics etc.

Architecture: We can see several examples of Gupta architecture among the various temples, stupas, inscription pillars and other structures. The Iron Pillar of Delhi, built by Chandragupta II Vikramaditya to record his victories and honor Lord Vishnu, has remained rust-resistant to this day, giving proof of the advanced metallurgical techniques of the era.

*Gupta Empire-era architecture (clockwise): Mahabodhi Temple, Dashavtara Temple, Ajanta Caves, Sanchi Temple*

But when the Gupta Empire fell, the ensuing chaos resulted in the caste system becoming very rigid, caste intermarriage becoming rare, and a new social order of ‘upper’ and ‘lower’ castes emerging. India became fragmented again into small kingdoms fighting each other, and scientific progress declined. Thus, historians consider the fall of the Gupta Empire as the end of Classical Hindu India.

Legacy

The Gupta Empire marks the pinnacle of classical Indian civilization, primarily Hindu but also Buddhist and Jain cultures. The peace they brought to the Indian Subcontinent resulted in widespread prosperity, low crime rate, extraordinary scientific and artistic advancements.

Today, the Aryabhatta Knowledge University (AKU), Patna for technical, medical, management, and allied professional education, and the Aryabhatta Research Institute of Obseervational Sciences (ARIES), Nainital for astronomy and astrophysics honor the genius mathematician. The scientific and artistic achievements of this era influence the world, which has adopted the Indian numeric system and the use of ‘Zero. Kalidasa’s plays now translated in Persian, Arabic, German, and other European languages. And, we remember Samudragupta the Great and Chandragupta II Vikramaditya as two of the greatest emperors the world has ever seen.

All good things must come to an end, indeed; but they must never be forgotten. The Gupta Empire thus remains a fondly and proudly remembered golden chapter in the history of the Indian Subcontinent.

Posted on October 17, 2020April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 4 Comments

12 Greatest Empires in Indian History- 3. The Satavahana Empire

Pandavleni Caves; Image Source: By Photo Dharma from Sadao, Thailand - 010 Cave 3, Exterior, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=58408349

The history of the Indian Subcontinent has had many glorious chapters over 5000 years of recorded history. In this series of articles, we take a look at some of the greatest empires of the Indian Subcontinent.

The fall of the Maurya Empire, the Iron Age Indian superpower in 180 BCE, gave rise to a number of different dynasties across the subcontinent. In our previous blog, we covered the Kushan Empire that dominated the north after the Mauryas. But what about the south?

After the Mauryan decline, the Deccan plateau region, comprising chiefly of modern-day Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana, was ruled by several tribes, out of which one would soon come to dominate the entire region. The Andhra jatiyas, originating in the Vindhya mountainous ranges, would come together and expand their influence to become the founders of the first Empire of the Deccan- the Satavahana Empire!

3. The Satavahana Empire (100 BCE-25 BCE; revived 60-225 CE)

*The Deccan Plateau; Source: Nichalp, CC BY-SA 3.0*

Bounded by the Western Ghats (Sahyadris) to the west and the Eastern Ghats to the East, with the Vindhya and Satpura mountains separating it from the north, the Deccan is a rocky region, giving rise to hardy people. In the earlier days, Ashoka the Great had ruled here, connecting this region to the rest of the Maurya Empire. But after its fall, its regional leaders became powerful and independent. At that time in history, the Andhras, if they were so-called, were an ethnicity not belonging to one particular region, but probably spread across the Deccan. Hence, it is difficult to prove exactly where the Satavahanas originated. However, in the first century BCE, the Satavahanas founded their empire in this region, which at its height stretched from the borders of Rajasthan to Karnataka; and from Gujarat in the west to Kalinga (Orissa) in the east.

Rise and First Fall

According to the Puranas, the Satavahanas were originally governors under the Kanva dynasty that ruled Pataliputra after the Mauryas and Shungas. Sometime during the first century BCE, Simuka (Srimukha) defeated the Kanvas to establish his own dynasty in his native Deccan. Under Simuka and his brother Kanha (Krishna), the Satavahanas established their capital in Pratishthan i.e. modern-day Paithan, Maharashtra. Due to their control of the two chief ports of Kalyan and Sopara, the Satavahanas began trading with the rising superpower in the west- the Roman Empire! Controlling the important ports as well as the key land routes, the Satavahanas grew wealthy and prosperous.

Simuka’s son, Satakarni I succeeded his uncle Kanha to the throne. Taking advantage of the turmoil caused by Greek invasions of northern India, Satakarni I conquered western Malwa, Anupa (Narmada valley) and Vidarbha. He also married Naganika, the daughter of a powerful local ruler, and thus consolidated his rule. He then proclaimed his sovereignty and imperial status by performed the Vedic Ashvamedha and Rajasuya sacrifices. Queen Naganika was a powerful influence in the empire. She was the first Queen in the Indian Subcontinent to have coins minted in her own name! His son Satakarni II conquered eastern Malwa, thus bringing most of the Southern Highway under Satavahana control. Succeeded by his son and grandson, the Satvahanas thus became known as the Dakshinapathapati- the Lords of the South/Southern Highway.

At this time, however, trouble began on the northern borders in Gujarat, where ruled the Shakas or Westerns Satraps. These were Indo-Scythian noblemen of Iranian descent who ruled parts of western India. Several invasions occurred, during which the Western Satraps conquered territory upto Nashik and Pune. Losing trade routes greatly diminished the Satavahana Empire’s power during the first half of 1^st century CE (AD). The Shaka King Nahapana ruled much of the former Satavahana territory.

Revival and Zenith of the Empire

This changed when a young Gautamiputra Satakarni came to power. Though historians remain divided about his exact reign, the most probable period seems to be 60-85 CE. He began his reign by uniting the scattered forces of the Deccan, and drove back the Shakas. Winning multiple victories, he also engaged northern powers such as the Pahlavas (Indo-Parthians) and the Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) who ruled western and northern India. In 78 CE, Gautamiputra Satakarni dealt a severe blow to a combined coalition of his enemies, decisively reestablishing his supremacy in the Deccan, Malwa, and Gujarat.

Gautamiputra Satakarni, greatest Emperor of the Satavahana Empire; Source: రహ్మానుద్దీన్, CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0, via Wikimedia Commons — *Gautamiputra Satakarni, greatest Emperor of the Satavahana Empire*; *Source: రహ్మానుద్దీన్, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons*

To commemorate the occasion, he performed the Ashwamedha and Rajasuya yajnas. At the same time, the Shaka King Nahapana is believed to have passed away, and Chashtana ascended to power. The victory of Gautamiputra Satakarni and his Satavahanas is believed to have started the Shalivahana Shaka era or Shaka calendar of the Hindus, although this is a debated issue. His influence also extended to cover the Eastern Deccan.

His son Vasishtiputra Pulumavi consolidated his hold over the eastern Deccan, so that the Satavahana Empire now extended from west coast to east coast; and from the edge of Rajasthan to southern Karnataka. Conflict with the Shakas flared up again during the reign of Vasishtiputra Satakarni, brother and successor of Pulumavi. To forge an alliance, he married the daughter of Shaka King Rudradaman.

Decline

However, despite the matrimonial relations, Vasishtiputra Satakarni lost two wars to his father-in-law, who only spared him because of their relation. This greatly lowered Satavahana prestige. The Shakas again captured much of the western territories except Nashik and Pune, and Satavahana power now came to be concentrated at Amaravati in modern-day Andhra Pradesh.

His grandson Yajna Satakarni revived the empire around 160 CE, taking back most of the western territories. However, his successors could not keep the central power strong, and the Empire soon fragmented into five different parts, marking the end of the mighty Satavahanas.

Political, Military, and Administrative Aspects

The Satavahanas followed the administrative guidelines of the Shastras, the ancient Vedic treatises and scriptures. As with most post-Maurya kingdoms, they also inherited a general structure of administration. However, the Satavahana government was less bureaucratically top-heavy than the Mauryans. The general administrative organization was:

Rajan, the hereditary rulers
Rajas, petty princes who struck coins in their own names
Maharathis, powerful hereditary lords who could grant villages in their own names and maintained matrimonial relations with the ruling family
Mahabhojas
Mahasenapati (civil administrator/governor)
Mahatalavara

The Kumaras or royal princes, appointed as viceroys of the provinces, gained experience in administration. Aharas were the major subdivisions of the Satavahana Empire, consisting of nagaras (cities), nigama (market towns) and gama (villages).

The Satavahana military consisted of infantry, cavalry, and elephants. The infantry usually formed the vanguard and the horses and elephants flanked them on either side. Spears, swords, and axes were common weapons. The King and the nobility were expected to lead the armies from the front.

The Satavahanas, since their rise to power, had to contend with the north-western Shakas for supremacy. Beyond the Shakas lay the territories of the Pahlavas and the Indo-Greeks with whom also some clashes happened. After Gautamiputra’s victories, peace was established- albeit briefly. Although the Satavahanas had the larger empire and arguably the greater impact upon history, the different dynasties of the Shakas managed to hold on to their territories in western India for almost 2 centuries after the Satavahanas, ultimately being defeated by the Guptas.

Maximum Extent of Satavahana Empire (at different periods marked by continued and dotted lines), along with neighboring powers — *Maximum Extent of Satavahana Empire (at different periods marked by continued and dotted lines), along with neighboring Western Satraps, Kushan Empire, Cholas and Pandyas*

To the south, they maintained trade relations with the various tribes, as well as the Three Kingdoms- Chola, Chera, and Pandya- that controlled most of modern-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

However, the Satavahanas are famed for their control over the sea routes through their ports. Called ‘Trisamudrishwara- The Lords of the Three Oceans’, they heavily promoted international trade. To the west, they traded extensively with Rome, while to the east their mariners went to south-east Asia. The resultant increase in prosperity mirrors that of the Kushans in the north, who were their contemporaries.

Social, Cultural, and Economic Aspects

The Satavahanas were probably Brahmins, with Gautamiputra even described as ‘Ekabrahmana’ which can be translated as ‘peerless Brahmin’. However, some sources have also suggested a Kshatriya origin. Though their culture was typically Hindu, their subjects freely practiced various religions. In particular, the Satavahanas supported and gave alms to Hindu as well as Buddhist priests. The Buddhist caves at Naneghat, for example, were excavated during the Satavahana reign. These caves contain the inscription of Naganika, which mentions that her husband Satakarni I performed several Hindu yajnas. The inscription also records large fees paid to Brahmin priests and attendees for these sacrifices. Satakarni II also commissioned the building of the elaborate gates at the famous Buddhist stupa at Sanchi.

The Pandavleni Buddhist Caves at Nashik were also developed under the Satavahana Empire, with donations by local merchants and administrators. The interesting thing here is that, although the area was sometimes under Shaka rule and sometimes under the Satavahanas, both the dynasties contributed to the development of these religious places!

Agriculture, of course, was the backbone of the Satavahana economy; and national and international trade was one of the chief sources of income. After Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar conquered Egypt, he opened up new trade routes to India, where the Satavahanas exported prized commodities like cotton, silk, pearls, and spices. Interestingly, during the excavations at the Roman city of Pompeii, destroyed due to volcanic eruptions, archaeologists discovered a statue of the goddess Lakshmi, dating back to the Satavahana era. Known today as the Pompeii Lakshmi, it gives us an idea of the far-reaching interactions between Rome and Paithan!

*Pompeii Lakshmi; Source: By Sailko – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0*

In the latter half of the 2^nd century, the focus of trade shifted to the eastern coast. Amaravati became the centre of power. The remains of a magnificent Buddhist Stupa in Amaravati indicate the prosperity of the Satavahana Empire.

The Satavahanas also used the Prakrit language more than Sanskrit. During the reign of Emperor Hala, the Gaha Sattasai (Gatha Saptashati), a compilation of poems describing the joy and torment of love was written. His minister Gunadhya is also supposed to be the author of the lost epic, Brihatkatha. Under Satavahana rule, women received higher education. Many queens ruled as regents while their sons were growing up; and as seen by the example of Naganika, often took part in the affairs of state. As each ruler had multiple wives, the princes took their first names from their mother, both to distinguish themselves and honor their parentage.

Legacy

The Satavahanas ruled over the Deccan for more than two centuries. The various caves at Pandavleni, Naneghat and other places, the temples and stupas, the large number of coins found, attest to their historical importance. The Republic of India adopted the Shalivahana Shaka Era calendar as its national calendar. The historic Dakshinapatha- the Southern Highway connecting the Deccan to the North- roughly corresponds with today’s NH7.

Gautamiputra Satakarni statue in Amaravati regional capital of Satavahana Empire; Source: Krishna Chaitanya Velaga, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons — *Gautamiputra Satakarni statue in Amaravati; Source: Krishna Chaitanya Velaga, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0* *via Wikimedia Commons*

Gautamiputra’s victory over the rulers of Scythian, Persian and Greek descent, cemented Satavahana legacy as the ‘sons of the soil’, who defended against foreign invasions. At the same time, their support to all religions, as well as the growth and expansion of trade, shows their benevolence and economic acumen. Indeed, there is much to learn from the First Empire of the Deccan!

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on August 8, 2020April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 8 Comments

The Chhatrapati and the Peshwa, Part 1- The Rise of Shahu Maharaj

Frequently, when discussing Indian history, people ask me about the Chhatrapatis and the Peshwas and their exact role in Maratha history. It is sad that these things have not been clearly emphasized in school textbooks, but the politics of British and even independent India has succeeded in obscuring them needlessly. Hence, when taking the story of the Marathas forward after the Maratha War of Independence, it is necessary to clarify this oft-questioned point.

The Chhatrapati and the Peshwa- Meaning and Origins

*Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Founder of the Maratha Empire*

In 1674, when Shivaji Maharaj was formally crowned, the title ‘Chhatrapati’ was chosen for his ascension. The word comes from the Sanskrit ‘Chhatra’ meaning umbrella or parasol, or figuratively, roof; and ‘pati’ meaning ‘Lord’. Thus, Chhatrapati literally translates to ‘Lord of the Parasol’; figuratively, it signifies a sovereign holding the roof of protection over other rulers. In English, it would be equivalent to ‘Emperor’ or ‘Lord Paramount’. Practically, it signified that Shivaji Maharaj was not a mere ‘Raja’ or ‘Maharaja’ serving under some Sultan; but rather, a fully independent sovereign ruler. His sons and descendants continued to inherit the title till after Indian independence.

The term ‘Peshwa’, on the other hand, was of Persian origin. Literally, it means ‘the First’ or ‘the Foremost’; figuratively it translates to ‘Prime Minister’. This title has an interesting history behind it. In 1642, when a young Shivaji visited his father Shahaji Maharaj in Karnataka, Shahaji appointed a group of experienced, loyal ministers to aid and advise his son in governing Pune and surrounding areas. Among these, Shamraj Pant Rozekar was appointed as the ‘Peshwa’. His duty was to oversee the administration of the province and act as the chief among ministers.

Over time, the crucial position of Peshwa came to rest with Moreshwar ‘Moro Pant’ Pingle, an enterprising leader who had joined the Maratha Revolution early on. Moro Pant constructed the Pratapgad fort, and took part in the Battle against Afzal Khan. He led several successful military missions in Nashik and Baglan, with the most famous being the great Battle of Salher-Mulher. Thus in 1674, Moro Pant Pingle became the first ‘Peshwa’ of the Swarajya. Shivaji Maharaj changed the title to Sanskrit as ‘Mukhya Pradhan’. However, the original title remained in use throughout Maratha history.

Peshwa- Role and Functions

In the ‘Kanoon Zabita’ (Book of Civil Law) compiled in 1674, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj defines the role and functions of the Peshwa:

The Mukhya Pradhan should look after all activities involved in governing the kingdom. He should bear the official Stamp of the State and seal the royal letters. When required, he should lead the armies of the kingdom and fight on the battlefield. Once a new province is conquered, it is the Mukhya Pradhan’s duty to ensure its security, and set its administrative affairs in order. He should have the confidence of the noblemen as well as the military, and work in consultation with them as a true leader.

The Peshwa during the Maratha War of Independence

All members of the Pradhan Mandal were appointed based on merit and experience, and the positions were not hereditary. However, in 1680, Moro Pant Pingle passed away of illness and age. Though he had unwillingly supported Queen Soyarabai and the Sacheev Annaji Datto in their power struggle against Prince Sambhaji; he had repented and sought forgiveness after the latter emerged victorious. Recognizing him as a great pillar of the Swarajya since its inception, Sambhaji had forgiven Moro Pant and restored his title and position. In recognition of his services, newly-crowned Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj also appointed his eldest son Nilkanth ‘Nilo Pant’ as his next Peshwa.

Nilo Pant served his King to the best of his abilities; however, he was at the time the least experienced member of the Council. Hence, in the years to come, stalwarts like Ramchandra Pant ‘Amatya’, ‘Shankaraji Pant ‘Sacheev’ and the Senapatis, Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav played more important roles. After Sambhaji’s death, Nilo Pant helped Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj escape to Jinjee fort. Post that, however, his role seems to have been taken over by Ramchandra Pant Amatya in Maharashtra, and Prahlad Pant, appointed in the newly formed role of ‘Pratinidhi’ at Jinjee. Till 1707, the above functionaries led the war against Aurangzeb, first under Rajaram Maharaj and then under his wife Maharani Tarabai. The Peshwa seems to have receded into the background, and conflicting records have been found of his fate.

Thus things progressed till 1707. But everything changed with the rise of Shahu Maharaj; and this is where we now pick up the story.

Shahu Maharaj- Early Years

Shahuji Bhonsale, son of Sambhaji Maharaj, spent 18 years of his life in Mughal captivity along with his mother Yesubai. The captured Marathas lived in fear of Aurangzeb’s displeasure, but the wily Emperor had a long-term plan. He wanted to use Shahu against his uncle Rajaram, and held him and his family as political prisoners. But even in these dark times, Shahu found a protector.

*Supposed posthumous painting based on Zeenat un-Nissa*

Zeenat un-Nissa, Aurangzeb’s favorite daughter, grew fond of little Shahu. An unmarried, pious lady, she began to think of Shahu as a son, and became his guardian angel. Not only did she help Yesubai ensure the safety of her people, she also facilitated Shahu’s education. Shahu grew fluent in Marathi, Sanskrit, and Farsi, and became well-versed in the history of both the Marathas and the Mughals. Having spent his formative years surrounded by violence, Shahu developed a wise, peaceful disposition that disliked conflict.

Once, in a fit of paranoia, Aurangzeb tried to convert Shahu to Islam, even issuing a royal firman. Once again, it was Zeenat un-Nissa who pleaded with Aurangzeb to change his mind. When he argued that he could not take back an issued firman, two sons of Shivaji’s late Commander Prataprao Gujar agreed to convert in Shahu’s stead. And so, Shahu was able to remain a Hindu.

In time, Aurangzeb himself grew somewhat fond of the quiet, intelligent and philosophical young man. He even arranged his marriage with the daughters of two Maratha sardars working for the Mughals, and presented him three swords as a gift- one that had belonged to Shivaji Maharaj, one that had belonged to Afzal Khan, and one belonging to the Emperor himself.

Death of a Tyrant

In the April of 1707, Aurangzeb Alamgir lay on his deathbed in Aurangabad. At his bedside were his most trusted advisors Nizam ul-Mulk and Zulfiqar Khan, his son Prince Azam, daughter Zeenat un-Nissa, and favorite prisoner, Shahu. The 89-year old tyrant, ruler of almost the entire Indian Subcontinent knew that his sons would never be able to continue the legacy of the House of Timur and Babar.

According to many accounts, Aurangzeb called Shahu to his side. He made Shahu swear that as long as he lived he would not let the House of Timur be destroyed, to which Shahu complied.

Then the Emperor died, and all hell broke loose.

His sons Muazzam, Azam, and Kam Baksh declared war against each other for the Mughal Throne, and Azam began to march northward to seize it. But what of Maharashtra? The Marathas had fought Aurangzeb for 27 years, and now they would take the opportunity to increase their strength. Azam knew he couldn’t allow them to consolidate. And so, he decided to initiate Aurangzeb’s long-term plan. He released Shahu!

Shahu Maharaj vs Maharani Tarabai

Long in the making, this was a masterstroke. The diminished Maratha Kingdom was then nominally ruled by Shahu’s teenaged cousin Shivaji II. However, it was Shahu’s aunt Maharani Tarabai who wielded the real power. The great warrior queen had spent the last seven years reclaiming the Swarajya from the Mughals, and had grown used to ruling. Would she simply hand over the throne?

Shahu left the Mughal camp with great fanfare, as befit a prince returning home. He wrote to Tarabai, declaring that he had been released and was coming to the capital Satara to meet her.

*Maharani Tarabai*, *Maratha Warrior Queen*

Tarabai called for her council of ministers- Ramchandra Pant Amatya (Finance Minister), Shankaraji Pant Sacheev (State Secretary), Parshuram Pant Pratinidhi (Viceroy), Khando Ballal Chitnis (Royal Secretary), and Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav (Commander-in-Chief). “Who is this young man?” She asked them. “Are we even sure that this is the real Shahu, son of Sambhaji? Or is he some impostor, coming from the Mughals to destroy us?” She refused to accept Shahu as the real heir, and the council sent envoys to find the truth.

By this time, Shahu had been joined by some veteran Maratha generals- Nemaji Shinde, Parsoji Bhonsle, Chimnaji Damodar Moghe, and Ambaji Pant Purandare. His armies increasing, Shahu marched south. Despite his claim to the throne, he knew quite well why the Mughals had released him. So, he desired to avoid war within the Maratha Kingdom and attempt a peaceful resolution. However, at the village of Parad, the local Patil loyal to Tarabai opposed him. In the brief battle that ensued, the Patil died. His grieving wife brought the Patil’s little son to Shahu, and demanded to know who would take care of him. Tender-hearted Shahu adopted him as a son, and named him Fateh Sinh Bhonsale.

The Maratha Civil War

The Council of Ministers ascertained that the young man was indeed the son of Sambhaji Maharaj. It was one of Dhanaji’s trusted aides, Balaji Vishwanath Bhat, who confirmed it. Balaji had met Shahu Maharaj when negotiating with the Mughals as the Sarsubhedar of Pune. Privately, Balaji also urged Dhanaji to join Shahu, as he was the rightful heir to the Maratha Throne. Ramchandra Pant Amatya wrote a congratulatory letter to Shahu and wished him success. Furious, Tarabai imprisoned him.

Her first ploy having failed, Tarabai changed her tack. Now, she declared that even if Shahu was indeed Sambhaji’s son, he had no right to her son’s throne!

In a letter, she wrote to her sardars, “The kingdom that the Thorle Maharaj (Shivaji) founded with great personal effort was lost by Sambhaji kaka along with his life. Then, the late swami (Rajaram) by his own courage created a new kingdom and defended it from the Mughals… Therefore, Shahu has nothing to do with this kingdom.”

Despite this, she knew her argument was weak, and that the loyalty of the noblemen was wavering. Hence, she asked the Council of Ministers to swear the ‘doodh bhaat’ (milk and rice) sacred oath of loyalty. Unwillingly, Shankaraji Pant and Dhanaji Jadhav swore to serve Tarabai loyally. Khando Ballal however, cleverly only specified that he would not help Shahu if he was an impostor.

With a large army, the Pratinidhi, the Senapati and the Chitnis left Satara to engage Shahu’s forces. However, the old Senapati privately asked Khando Ballal Chitnis to verify whether Shahu was indeed the real heir. Khando Ballal met Shahu Maharaj secretly and ascertained his identity. Agreeing with Balaji Vishwanath, he convinced Dhanaji to abandon Tarabai’s cause.

The Battle of Khed

Senapati Dhanaji jadhav, Commander-in-Chief of the Maratha Army — *Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav, Commander-in-Chief of the Maratha Army*; Image Source

At Khed, the two forces met. However, Dhanaji’s contingent only pretended to fight and stayed aloof. Exposed, Parshuram Pant Pratinidhi fled with his forces to Satara. Dhanaji surrendered to Shahu Maharaj, who then released him from all prior oaths and appointed him his Senapati. And they marched forward.

At Shirwal, Shahu tried to approach Shankaraji Pant Sacheev. But the honorable old minister could not decide where his loyalties lay- to his sworn oath or to the rightful heir. Torn between the two, Shankaraji committed suicide.

Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj

Now, Shahu marched to Satara. The Pratinidhi strengthened the fort and sent Tarabai and Shivaji II to Panhala. Looking at the huge fortress, Dhanaji expressed doubt about conquering it. But Shahu calmly said, “The fort will fall eight days from now.”

And fall it did. Shahu’s forces entered and imprisoned the Pratinidhi. Key to this victory were Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav and his resourceful aide, Balaji Vishwanath Bhat.

On January 12, 1708, 25-year old Shahu ascended to his grandfather’s throne. The quiet, dutiful former prisoner of the Mughal camp had now become Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj!

And just like that, a new sun had arisen over the fortunes of the Maratha Empire.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on July 24, 2020April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit · 4 Comments

12 Greatest Empires in Indian History- 2. The Kushan Empire

The Indian Subcontinent has been host to a number of powerful empires and dynasties throughout the ages. In this series of articles, we take a look at 12 of the greatest empires in the subcontinent’s history- empires that have shaped the story of the land and left behind a legacy that persists to this day.

In Part 1 of the series, we covered the well-known Maurya Empire, considered by many to be the first and most extensive historical empire in the subcontinent. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya and his guru Chanakya, it rose to its zenith under Ashoka the Great, and declined after his death to formally end in 180 BCE. But what happened after that? The period between the fall of the Mauryas and the rise of the Guptas in the 3rd century CE was shrouded in mystery for a long time. Historians found mentions in the Roman, Parthian and Chinese records of a Bactrian empire and culture, but knew nothing about who they were. It was only in the 19th century that the modern archaeological study revealed the existence of a powerful empire that dominated Central Asia and the northern Indian subcontinent, thus filling in the historical gaps.

The fall of the Maurya Empire gave rise to a number of new kingdoms formed out of its various provinces. The Shungas ruled in Bihar, Bengal and East India, while the Mahameghavahanas ruled Kalinga (Odisha) and the Indo-Parthians and Indo-Scythians ruled the northern and western parts of the subcontinent. For almost two centuries, a number of successive kingdoms arose, until one by one, they fell to the influence of an unlikely new power- the Kushans.

2. The Kushan Empire (30 CE- 270 CE; highly diminished rule till 350 CE)

What if you were to hear about an empire that lasted for almost 3 centuries, consisted of wealthy metropolitan cities, and was home to people of different ethnicities worshiping a number of different gods? And yet, these people, living ‘luxurious lifestyles’ as per the Chinese, left virtually no written records of their exploits or histories?

The Kushan Empire reigned supreme over a large part of Asia, approximately 2 million sq. km., for almost 200 years. The Kushans were part of the Yuezhi tribes that migrated to the region of Bactria. Settling there, they adopted major elements of the prevalent Greek culture. Their origin is most likely to have been Indo-European. In any case, the 5 tribes of the Yuezhi ruled in Bactria until the Guishang or Kushan united them to form an empire. At its height, this empire ruled over parts of modern-day Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Northern India.

However, there are almost no records written by the Kushans about themselves. We find many records from Roman, Chinese and other writers. Similarly, there are no paintings that have survived to this era. Hence, for most of history, people did not know much about them, and it is only over the last 200 years that we have begun to learn their story. Let us, then, take a look at this forgotten empire of the Indian Subcontinent.

The Rise

The first well-recorded ruler of the Kushans is known as Kajula Kadphises. He rose to prominence around 40-50 CE (AD) by defeating the other 4 tribes and became their emperor. Expanding towards the east, he defeated the Indo-Parthian kingdom in Afghanistan and north-western part of the Indian Subcontinent. Along with his son Vima Takto, he conquered the city of Kabul and pressed onward.

Vima Takto became Emperor around 90 CE, and extended his empire north into Bactria and the Tarim Basin in China. During his time, envoys were exchanged between the Han Empire of China and the Kushans. Though he was probably Parsi (Zoroastrian) by faith, during his times a syncretic tradition of religions began. After his death, his son Vima Kadphises increased his territory in Central Asia as well as India and encouraged extensive trade with the Roman Empire to the West, and the Han Chinese Empire to the East. The Kushan Empire became the centre of trade in the Old World, and increasing prosperity saw Vima introduce golden coinage in addition to silver and copper.

Gold Coin of Vima Kadphises; Source: Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com / CC BY-SA (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) — *Gold coin of Emperor Vima Kadphises (left) depicting Lord Shiva (right); Source: Classical Numismatic Group, Inc., CC BY-SA*

Zenith of the Empire

It was under the 23-year reign of his son Kanishka I that the Kushans reached the maximum territorial extent. The Kushan Empire extended from Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, to Ujjain in the south, and Afghanistan in the northwest to Pataliputra (Patna) in the southeast. Some territories in the Tarim Basin of China are also considered to be tributaries of Kanishka.

Samrat Kanishka the Great of the Kushan Empire; Source: theweek.in — *Samrat Kanishka the Great; Source: theweek.in*

Kanishka controlled the Silk Route that connected Rome to China, and thus all trade happened under his benevolent gaze. His empire grew in wealth and splendor, and he established several trade centers. His coinage includes a diverse symbolism- Greek, Parsi, Buddhist, Hindu, Mesopotamian- proof of the syncretic religious traditions in his domain. He also commissioned the massive Buddhist Kanishka Stupa at his capital Purushapura (Peshawar), where pilgrims visited from all over Asia. His benevolent administration earned him the appellation of Kanishka the Great!

The golden age of the Kushan Empire continued under Kanishka’s son Huvishka, who established greater control over Mathura and consolidated his father’s territories. A devotee of Shiva, his coins bore the image of Mahadeva and his son Kartikeya. His son, Emperor Vasudeva I established peaceful relations with the new Sassanian dynasty in Persia and continued prosperous rule from 191-225 CE.

Maximum extent of the Kushan Empire (dotted line); Source: By PHGCOM - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2110032 — *Maximum extent of the Kushan Empire (dotted line); Source: By PHGCOM – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2110032*

The Decline

Unfortunately, Vasudeva I was the last of the Great Kushans. His son Kanishka II had to face repeated invasions from the Sassanian Empire, and lost his territories in Central Asia. His successor Vasishka I made some efforts at consolidation during his 30-year reign, but after his death the Kushans declined.

From 270 CE onwards, the rulers, known to history as ‘Little Kushans’ mainly controlled the Punjab area, losing the east and south to the Gupta Empire and the northwest to the Persians. The last ruler Kipunada ruled only western Punjab as a vassal of the powerful Emperor Samudragupta I. With his death in 350 CE came the end of the once-mighty Kushan dynasty.

Political, Military, and Administrative Aspects

Purushapura was the original stronghold from the times of Kajula Kadphises, and became the capital of the Kushans. As their borders expanded, they established two more provincial capitals- Bagram (Afghanistan) and Mathura (India) for better administrative control. In India, they allowed the kings they conquered to continue ruling as their vassals, hence the religions, culture and military of these states remained essentially Indian.

Their traditional way of fighting was of lightly armored archers on horseback. After settling in Bactria they added strong infantry and mercenary units of the Greek tradition. Their entry into India under Vima Kadphises introduced elephants in their ranks, as well as heavy-armored cavalry units called cataphracts.

In the 1^stand 2^nd centuries, the Kushans expanded northwards up to the borders of the powerful Han Empire of China. At times, they allied with the Chinese to defeat invaders such as the Sogdians, and at times fought against them. To the west, they bordered the Parthians, beyond whom lay the mighty Roman Empire. To the south were the Shakas and the Satavahanas. During Kanishka’s time, his local vassal built the Bathinda Fort in Punjab for the Emperor. This fort was strengthened and renamed Qila Mubarak by the later Muslim rulers.

Bathinda Fort (Qila Mubarak) of the Kushan Empire, Punjab — *Bathinda Fort (Qila Mubarak), Punjab*

Kushan envoys were present at the court of Emperor Huan of Han, and presented him with gifts. Their Buddhist missionaries travelled over the Silk Route to China and there, spread the message of the Buddha. Similarly, during the reign of the powerful Roman Emperor Hadrian (117-138 CE), ambassadors arrived from Bactria seeking his friendship, probably sent by Kanishka himself. Modern excavations in Gandhara have yielded several Roman imported artifacts, giving proof of the regular international trade.

Kushan Religion- A Fascinating Syncretism

Due to the various cultures and peoples that existed in the lands they conquered, Kushan religion became fascinatingly syncretic, i.e. comprising of elements from a number of existing religions- Greek, Buddhist, Parsi and Hindu. A number of their gods share similarities with one or more gods from these pantheons. For example, they worshipped Mithra and Ahura Mazda of the Parsi (Zoroastrian) faith, Helios (Sun) and Selene (Moon) from the Greek gods, Sarapis of the Egyptians, Buddha and Maitreya of Buddhism and Shiva and his son Kartikeya from Hinduism. However, after Huvishka’s time, only two main deities appear on the coins: Oesho (Ishvara or Shiva) and Ardoksho (Devi). Still, they retained elements of the deities from other religions.

The various emperors also patronized various religions. Kanishka I in particular, constructed a number of various stupas and chaityas. He also helped convene the 4th Great Buddhist Council at Kashmir. Due to the Buddhist influence in Gandhara, a new script ‘Gandhari’ emerged, and archaeologists have found many Buddhist scrolls in this language.

Social, Economic, and Cultural Aspects

Kushan society comprised of a number of different cultures. Due to their embrace of different cultures, most provinces continued their traditions as before, even as the local rulers acknowledged the Kushans as their overlords.

Economically, the Kushans under Kanishka became one of the wealthiest empires in the world. Controlling the trade routes gave them enormous benefits, and they became the center of global trade. The two most powerful empires of Rome and China had to depend on the Kushans to trade, thus generating revenue. At its height, gold was a very common commodity in the Kushan Empire. Thus, India cemented its status as the ‘Golden Bird’ of the Old World!

The art and culture of the Kushans in Gandhara was Greco-Buddhist in nature. It adopted styles of dressing, sculpture and art from both the Greek and Indian cultures. When they conquered Mathura, they also encouraged the further development of the Mathura school of art. Here, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions came together to create a multitude of iconic artwork. Thus, Kushan culture represented a confluence of the western (Greek, Iranian) and eastern (Hindu, Buddhist) art and tradition.

*Statue of Kanishka the Great at Mathura, with the inscription: Maharaj Rajadhiraj Devaputra Kanishka; Image Source*

Legacy

The Kushan Empire, caught as it is between the eras of the mighty Mauryas and the golden Guptas, tends to get overlooked in the study of modern Indian history. However, its importance as a major trade center of the world, a link between Rome, Persia, Africa and China, and the prosperity it brought to the Indian Subcontinent cannot be underestimated. The Kushans developed extensive diplomatic and trade relations with all the other powers of the known Old World. Their economic influence helped them attain the status of a major world power alongside Rome, Parthia and China. Under Kanishka the Great, the Kushans restored peace and immense prosperity to the northern and western parts of the Subcontinent. They influenced Central Asian culture with their distinct Greco-Buddhist traditions. Their traditions of religious syncretism show that a simple understanding of different cultures can lead to a new culture- prosperous, inclusive and harmonious.

We can only hope that further research will shed some more light upon this intriguing chapter in history.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on June 26, 2020April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit

The Maratha War of Independence, Part 2- Chhatrapati Rajaram, Maharani Tarabai, and Aftermath

Sinhagad Fort; Image Source: Lobodrl / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)

The Maratha War of Independence was fought from 1681 CE to 1707 CE between the mighty Mughal Empire under Aurangzeb and the newly-independent Maratha state. For 27 long years, this David-and-Goliath war occupied western India, until just like the Biblical tale, the smaller side emerged victorious. Part 1 covered the first 9 years where the Marathas led by Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, resisted Mughal invasion. In 1689, the Mughals captured Sambhaji Maharaj captured through treachery and brutally executed him. The Maratha capital Raigad was also betrayed, and his wife and son imprisoned in Aurangzeb’s camp. The old Emperor was about to declare the war won, when he heard that Rajaram, half-brother of Sambhaji, had escaped to the fort of Vishalgad and been crowned the next Chhatrapati.

The War of Independence, it seemed, was to continue.

A Plan of Vengeance

At Vishalgad, the Maratha leadership knew they had to act fast against the Mughals. The purpose was both, to avenge their fallen king as well as to weaken the Mughals’ spirit. And so in a daring move, the new Army Commander or Senapati, Santaji Ghorpade, with three other captains and a handful of men, launched a night raid upon the Mughal camp. Slaughtering the drowsy guards, they created havoc in the camp.

Santaji went straight to the largest tent- the Emperor’s shamiana. But Aurangzeb was visiting his daughter that night, and so safe from Santaji’s wrath! Upon not finding his target, Santaji cut off the imperial golden spire at the top of the tent and made his way back to Vishalgad with a lot of loot. This incident struck terror in the hearts of the Mughals. Aurangzeb also realized how close he had come to death, and ordered his forces to Vishalgad!

The Mughal forces began systematically occupying the surrounding area, and luring the local Maratha noblemen into their service. Their power and cruelty was reaching its zenith, and the situation was dire.

The Escape to Jinjee

*Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj, 3rd Maratha Emperor*

Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj was worried. His sister-in-law had asked him to take charge of the Maratha Empire, but now she and the rightful heir to the throne, his nephew Shivaji II were prisoners. And he could do nothing to save them! He had assumed the position of the Chhatrapati only to defend the Swarajya in the name of his nephew, but his position was becoming untenable. The Mughals were swarming their territories, destroying temples and looting the populace. He took counsel with the Pradhan Mandal, his Council of Ministers. And then inspiration struck! Jinjee!

In his unparalleled foresight, the illustrious Shivaji Maharaj, father of Rajaram had campaigned far into South India, forging alliances with key rulers and conquering territories like Vellore and Jinjee in Tamil Nadu. Close to these was the Maratha Kingdom of Thanjavur, ruled by Rajaram’s cousin. These southern territories formed a second line of defense now that the strongholds of Maharashtra were threatened. And so a bold plan was hatched.

The Prime Minister or Peshwa, Nilo Pant Moreshwar, was sent ahead to secure the territory of Jinjee for the Chhatrapati. Rajaram Maharaj, accompanied by his trusted Viceroy or ‘Pratinidhi’ Pralhad Pant, his Royal Scribe or ‘Chitnis’ Khando Ballal, and some chosen soldiers escaped Vishalgad and traveled south. The Emperor of course, sent an army in pursuit, but Santaji Ghorpade and his deputy Dhanaji Jadhav harassed and dispersed this army through guerrilla attacks. Queen Keladi Chennamma of the Nayaks of Karnataka also resisted the Mughals fiercely and protected the Chhatrapati. He reached Jinjee in 1691.

Painting of Hukumatpanah Ramchandra Pant Amatya; Image Credit: By Vedika201 - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=81916411 — *Painting of Hukumatpanah Ramchandra Pant Amatya; Image Credit*

Santaji and Dhanaji, the two fearless generals then returned to meet the remaining members of the Pradhan Mandal now directing the freedom struggle in Maharashtra- Ramchandra Pant ‘Amatya’, the Finance Minister, and Shankaraji Pant ‘Sacheev’, the Royal Secretary. Ramchandra Pant Amatya was at this point, the only surviving member of Shivaji’s original Council of Ministers. And so before leaving, the Chhatrapati had bestowed the title of ‘Hukumatpanah’ upon this veteran, effectively authorizing him to rule in his stead. Along with the Sacheev and the two generals, as well as the Pant Pratinidhi and the Chitnis at Jinjee, he would lead the peoples’ guerrilla war against the Mughals.

Shivaji II becomes ‘Shahu’ in the Mughal Camps

Meanwhile, the Mughals held prisoner young Shivaji II, son of Chhatrapati Sambhaji, his mother Yesubai and 200 other members and servants of the royal household. The prisoners lived in fear for their lives, but Aurangzeb had learned his lesson. He had cruelly executed Sambhaji Maharaj and still the Marathas had continued their resistance. Deciding to play the long game, he treated Yesubai and Shivaji II comparatively mildly.

He particularly tried to influence the Maratha prince, but his name kept reminding Aurangzeb of his hated foe, the boy’s grandfather ‘Shivaji’! And so he gave the boy a new name- Shahu. Shahu grew to be an intelligent, wise and perceptive young man. Though never allowed to learn the martial skills of warfare, he became a man of great learning and culture.

A Clash of Strategies

Aurangzeb sent a large force south with his trusted General Zulfiqar Khan and his son Kam Baksh. But the citadel of Jinjee proved a match for the Mughal cannons, while the Marathas raided Mughal camps regularly with aid from the Maratha King of Thanjavur. The siege of Jinjee thus continued for 7 years!

Jinjee Fort, Capital of the Marathas under Rajaram Maharaj; Image Source: KARTY JazZ / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0) — *Jinjee Fort, Capital of the Marathas under Rajaram Maharaj; Image Source*

Meanwhile, the commanders Santaji and Dhanaji carried out a series of devastating cavalry attacks in various regions like Malwa, Karnataka and Telangana. They won some skirmishes and lost a few, but the objective was to keep the Mughal forces occupied and scattered. Other sardars such as Vithoji Chavan, the Bhonsles, and the Pawars, coordinating with the Amatya and the Sacheev, fought the Mughals all over Maharashtra. At this point, Chhatrapati Rajaram and his Council reinstated the ‘watandari’ system abolished by Shivaji Maharaj, allowing the Maratha sardars to keep whatever land they conquered as their own feudal territory.

Emboldened by the prospect of winning land and glory, a number of Maratha sardars defeated the Mughals and created their own watans. The constant battles were a colossal drain upon the treasuries and resources of Aurangzeb. Also, his absence from the north meant his governors there gained more autonomy. The Emperor sent an ultimatum to Zulfiqar Khan in 1697- conquer Jinjee or surrender your land and titles! The siege of Jinjee tightened.

The Fall of Jinjee and the Chhatrapati

By this time, Prahlad Pant Pratinidhi, the wise diplomat had passed away, and Parshuram Pant was appointed in his place. Rajaram’s wives and children were also with him in Jinjee. But the Commander-in-Chief, Santaji had been assassinated by another chieftain for petty revenge, and Dhanaji Jadhav had become the Senapati.

Monument to Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav, Commander-in-Chief of Maratha Army; Image Credits: Urunkarsa / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0) — *Monument to Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav, Commander-in-Chief of Maratha Army; Image Credits*

Foreseeing that Jinjee might not hold for much longer, Dhanaji helped Rajaram Maharaj escape the siege and make the arduous journey back to Maharashtra. In 1698 the Mughals captured Jinjee, but Khando Ballal struck a deal to ensure the safe handover of Rajaram’s wives and children.

Thus by 1700 CE, Rajaram Maharaj had reunited safely with his family and council of ministers. But his health had always been delicate, and the strain of the last decade had left him with lung disease. Thus, after 11 years of struggle, Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj passed away at Sinhagad, and the Marathas were in crisis again. Shahu, the true heir, was still a prisoner, while Rajaram’s sons were still children. Who would now to assume the leadership of the Maratha State?

Maharani Tarabai- Reign of the Warrior-Queen

*Maharani Tarabai goes to War, painting by M V Dhurandhar*

At this critical juncture, Maharani Tarabai, wife of Rajaram and daughter of the former Senapati Hambirrao, installed her infant son on the throne and ruled as the Queen Regent. A trained warrior, she worked with the Council of Ministers to continue the guerrilla warfare against the Mughals. Under her leadership, Dhanaji Jadhav’s forces invaded Gujarat and Malwa. She herself led armies along with the Amatya and the Pratinidhi to counter Aurangzeb’s weakened forces. For the next seven years, she systematically began reclaiming lost territory from the Mughals.

The Emperor had expected Maratha resistance to shatter after Rajaram’s death. Now in his eighties, he became hapless. His armies would besiege a fort for months; then pay heavy sums of money to the Marathas in order to capture it. The moment he turned his back, the Marathas led by Tarabai would return and recapture it. The vast amount of resources consumed by over two decades of war had greatly weakened Mughal territories economically. They began to fall to the Marathas. It seemed even the Deccan itself was fighting back! He lost a lot of loot when a river flooded, and an avalanche crippled one of his legs. His armies, tired of the fruitless war, also longed to go home.

At last in 1707, Aurangzeb began to return to Delhi. But on the way, he breathed his last in Aurangabad and was forever buried in Maratha soil. How it must have pained him, that the land of Shivaji Maharaj would claim his bones! Thus died the last ‘Great Mughal’, and with him died the glory of his empire.

Aftermath of the 27-Year War

Aurangzeb’s death marked the end of the war, for his sons immediately began fighting for the throne. In the process, they released Shahu from prison, who returned to claim his birthright. His aunt Tarabai was unwilling to hand over the throne, and a civil war ensued. However, with the support of stalwarts like Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav, Parsoji Bhonsle, Khando Ballal Chitnis, and Balaji Vishwanath Bhat, Shahu Maharaj was crowned Chhatrapati at Satara. He gave Kolhapur and the southern territories to Tarabai and her son as an independent kingdom. His wise reign, and the capable rule of his Peshwas and Sardars, resulted in the creation of a powerful, stable and prosperous Maratha Empire.

Endnote

As mentioned in Part 1, this was a war between a mighty Empire and an Ideal. Evidently, the Ideal won. Why? Because it inspired, united and motivated people to keep fighting beyond reason, or hope. When in doubt, in crisis or despair, I hope the Maratha War of Independence similarly inspires all of us to keep fighting.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on June 26, 2020April 11, 2021 by Ashutosh Dixit

The Maratha War of Independence, Part 1: Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj

Nipunbayas / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)

Seldom has a war that went on for so long, been spoken of so little. How many Indians have heard of a war that went on for 27 years, claimed millions of lives, and ended with the humiliation of one of the greatest Empires of its times? The Maratha War of Independence, or the Mughal-Maratha War, certainly deserves a mention in the chronicles of Indian history. For it was not a war of one feuding kingdom against another. It was a war between a mighty Empire and a powerful Ideal- the Ideal of Hindavi Swarajya, or independence of the Indian people. And in the end, the Ideal won.

The Setting

1681. The Lion of the Deccan, the Sun of the Swarajya, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj had passed away a year earlier. His son Sambhaji Maharaj now ruled from Raigad as the Chhatrapati of the fledgling Maratha Empire. Despite intrigue from within his own family and his father’s council of ministers, who had tried to use his adolescent half-brother Rajaram against him; Sambhaji Maharaj had outwitted them and ascended to his birthright. A mighty warrior as well as a scholar, the young king knew he had a difficult task ahead of him. And his apprehension was proved right.

*Portrait of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, 2nd Maratha Emperor*

In Delhi, young Prince Akbar II had rebelled against his father, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, in outrage over his ill-treatment of the Rajputs of Marwar, but lost. The rebels had scattered, with the Mughals hunting them one-by-one. Where could he go to seek refuge from his father’s wrath? The Rajputs had an answer: the hill-forts of the Deccan, under the protection of the Maratha Chhatrapati! With the famed Rajput hero Durgadas Rathore protecting him, Akbar II journeyed south and was given asylum.

When Aurangzeb Alamgir heard, he was furious! That Sambhaji, son of his most implacable adversary, could defy him so openly! Aurangzeb had long dreamt of bringing the Deccan to heel, and conquering all of South India. Gathering an army of more than half a million men from all corners of the Mughal Empire, he left Delhi in September 1681 in a splendor worthy of one of the richest empires in the world. As Stanley Wolpert writes, “Aurangzeb’s encampment was like a moving capital – a city of tents 30 miles in circumference, with some 250 bazaars, with a half million camp followers, 50,000 camels and 30,000 elephants.” The stage was set for his supposedly grand conquest of the Deccan.

He never returned.

Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj- Rudra Personified

*Statue of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj in Pune; Image Source: Apricus / CC BY-SA (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)*

Chhatrapati Sambhaji was campaigning with the majority of his army against the Siddis harassing his coast when he heard of the Mughals moving towards his capital Raigad. Moving swiftly, he defeated the Mughal contingent and drove it back towards Ahmednagar. He returned to Raigad and took command of the defenses, supported by his advisor and close friend the poet Kavi Kalash, his capable wife Maharani Yesubai, his veteran Army Commander-in-Chief or Senapati, Hambirrao Mohite, and other Ministers. Aurangzeb had by then established his encampment at Aurangabad, and his armies now moved to besiege several Maratha forts. The Marathas on their part ably defended their fortresses and denied the Mughals any headway in the campaign.

Aurangzeb attempted to strike a deal with the Portuguese to allow his ships to harbor in Goa, giving him another supply route through the sea. His spies informed him of this, so Sambhaji Maharaj preemptively struck at the northern Portuguese territories. He pushed them back to the Goa coast with such ferocity, that the Viceroy could barely defend the Portuguese headquarters. At the same time, Senapati Hambirrao engaged the army contingents under the Mughal Princes in guerrilla warfare and defeated them. But news came of a huge Mughal army and navy assembling at the borders of the Deccan in early 1684, and the Chhatrapati had to turn back from Goa to secure his territory. Both sides were now slowly coming to a terrible realization: the war was only just beginning.

A Change of Strategies

The enterprising Chhatrapati then signed a defensive treaty with the British, thus procuring artillery and explosives which he used to conquer several forts from the Mughals. Enraged, Aurangzeb sent his general to take Raigad in late 1684, but the Senapati defeated and forced him to retreat.

Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir I; Source: Unknown author / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) — *Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir I; Image Source*

Realizing the futility of his plans, Alamgir also changed his strategies. In April 1685, he attacked the Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda. These crumbling Sultanates subdued by the Marathas, had signed a peace treaty with the Mughals. However, defeating them would give the Emperor a greater hold over the Deccan. Within the next two years, Aurangzeb managed to destroy them and replenished his supplies and manpower, as many of the noblemen from the sultanates joined his armies. Chikkadevraja of Mysore who had been paying tribute to the Marathas, ceased to do so out of fear of the Mughals. With renewed vigor, Aurangzeb returned to what had now become his primary objective- defeating the Marathas.

A Reversal of Fortunes

With diminishing supplies and allies, Sambhaji was no longer able to support Prince Akbar, but helped him escape to Persia. Aurangzeb’s army attacked Satara, but Senapati Hambirrao and his contingent managed to draw the Mughals into the dense jungles of Wai and Mahabaleshwar. The fierce Battle of Wai ensued; the Marathas won but lost their Commander, Hambirrao in the process.

The veteran Commander’s death was a serious blow to the Chhatrapati’s strength and prestige. In addition, political clashes broke out between different factions. Chhatrapati Shivaji’s far-sighted policy of not giving land or ‘watans’ to the noblemen but making them salaried employees, continued by Sambhaji Maharaj, led to some chieftains defecting to the Mughals for selfish gain. As many began to defect, including one of Sambhaji’s brothers-in-law, the situation grew dire. The Chhatrapati called a Council meeting at Sangameshwar to discuss further plans. But his position being betrayed by the defectors, Mughal General Muqarrab Khan led a heavy force and surrounded them. Some leaders having gone ahead, the remaining Marathas fought fearsomely and the new Senapati, Mhaloji Ghorpade died defending his king. But alas! Sambhaji Maharaj and Kavi Kalash were captured and taken to the Mughal camp via secret routes.

A Last Roar of Defiance

The Mughal camp at Bahadurgad was rejoicing at the capture of the Chhatrapati. Sambhaji Maharaj and Kavi Kalash were brought to the camp, made to wear the clothes of prisoners and jesters, and paraded around on camels. The jeers and taunts of the Mughals were worse than any torture for the proud king.

After some more torture, the soldiers brought them before the Emperor in chains. Aurangzeb expected them to submit, but to his astonishment Sambhaji refused to even bow to him! The ‘Chhava’ or ‘Young Lion’ stood erect, boldly daring to look into Aurangzeb’s eyes! According to Mughal customs, this was an insult to the Emperor. Angered, he demanded that Sambhaji turn over his treasuries, as well as the names of his informers, and accept the suzerainty of the Mughals. The Maratha Chhatrapati proudly declined, while Kavi Kalash began to recite poetry praising his king and taunting the Emperor.

Dramatic modern depiction of Sambhaji Maharaj in chains; Image Source: https://www.historyfiles.co.uk — *Dramatic modern depiction of Sambhaji Maharaj in chains; Image Source https://www.historyfiles.co.uk*

Accounts of the torture that followed vary in the description, but not in the horror. The Masir-i-Alamgiri eyewitness chronicles state that Sambhaji’s eyes were put out that same night, and Kavi Kalash deprived of his tongue. The next day, both of them were put to the sword. The Futuh’at-i-Alamgiri further narrates that even after losing his eyes, Sambhaji refused to accept a morsel of food from his captors, or to divulge any information. Other accounts state that his captors repeatedly pressed him to convert to Islam, but he staunchly refused. He was then taken away along with Kavi Kalash, and their limbs were hacked off one by one until death. Their executors threw the pieces of their bodies into the river at Tulapur.

Thus was Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj martyred on 11^th March 1689, and the Maratha Empire plunged into darkness.

The Fall of Raigad and its Aftermath

*Raigad Fort, capital of the Marathas during the reign of Sambhaji Maharaj; Image Source*

During these events, Mughal General Zulfiqar Khan had besieged the Maratha capital, and Sambhaji’s capture lowered the defenders’ morale. In this crucial hour, the widowed Maharani Yesubai took charge. She brought forth Sambhaji’s half-brother Rajaram and asked him to take over the duties of the Chhatrapati, as her own son Shivaji II was but 7 years old. As circumstances worsened, she arranged Rajaram’s escape to Vishalgad fort along with some ministers, and remained behind to defend Raigad. But Raigad fell to the Mughals, betrayed by disgruntled sardars. Yesubai, her son Shivaji II, and many members of the royal family fell into Mughal hands. The Mughal camps erupted in jubilant celebration, for Aurangzeb believed the war finally over.

But he was wrong. The brutal murder of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj would turn out to be Aurangzeb’s greatest mistake. It horrified the Maratha people, and rekindled the fire of freedom in their hearts. Chhatrapati Sambhaji’s sacrifice seemed to transform every blade of grass into a sword, every boulder into a fortress, and every man, woman and child into a warrior. The embers of Maratha self-esteem had received the sacrifice of their king’s blood, and they flared brighter than ever before. It had now truly become a war of the people. The newly-crowned Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj and his Council of Ministers resolved to avenge this sacrifice, and continue the war at any cost.

So how did the Marathas fight back in their darkest hour? Were they able to avenge their fallen King? Find out in Part 2 of this article, coming up soon.

Endnote

Here, let us stop for now, and reflect for a moment on this tremendous sacrifice. Is there an ideal, a purpose, a noble goal in our lives for which we would be willing to stand up and make sacrifices? It is a question worth pondering, as we wait for Part 2 of the Maratha War of Independence.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on June 25, 2020December 29, 2022 by Ashutosh Dixit · 2 Comments

12 Greatest Empires in Indian History- 1. The Maurya Empire

India. The very name evokes a sense of mythic grandeur, of ancient culture, magnificent history and mystic spirituality. The Indian Subcontinent, which makes up most of South Asia, has historically enjoyed a pre-eminent position in the world. Due to its rich and varied natural resources, its fabled wealth, and its geographic position, the region has a huge and multi-cultural history. Since as far back as the early Vedic period, hundreds of dynasties and cultures, conquerors and kings, have sought to establish their dominion over the ‘Sonchidiya’, as it was known.

In this series of articles, we take a look at the 12 Greatest Empires to have been established in the Indian Subcontinent, before the British rule. These empires have been listed chronologically in the order of their rise, and selected based on a number of parameters, such as the total land mass governed, the contribution to arts and culture, and their political, economic and global significance.

1. The Maurya Empire (322 BCE – 185 BCE)

*Maximum Extent of the Maurya Empire; Image Source: Avantiputra7 / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)*

The Maurya Empire was the predominant power in all of South Asia during the Iron Age. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya, it grew to cover an area of 5 million sq. km., stretching out over the present day countries of India (excluding the southernmost strip), Pakistan, Afghanistan and small parts of Iran. The Maurya Empire was the first to effectively unite the entire Indian Subcontinent, and remains the largest Indian Empire till date.

The Rise

In the wake of Alexander the Great’s retreat from India, the north-western parts were under the rule of his generals like Seleucus I Nicator. The rest of India was ruled by a number of independent kingdoms, the largest and most powerful among them being Magadha. The Nanda dynasty that ruled Magadha had become proud and decadent under the incumbent ruler, Dhana Nanda. It was then that the famed philosopher Chanakya and his young student, the charismatic warrior Chandragupta Maurya, rose in rebellion. Securing allies and followers, Chandragupta dethroned the tyrant Dhana Nanda and found himself the Samrat (Emperor) of Magadha.

Chandragupta Maurya, 1st Maurya Emperor — *Representative modern statue of Chandragupta Maurya, 1st Emperor of the Indian Subcontinent*

From there, he launched a campaign westward, soundly defeating Seleucus and his Greek forces. Seleucus made peace with Chandragupta, surrendered territories up to Kandahar and gave his daughter to the young king in marriage. Then Chandragupta rode southward, conquering all of North India and parts of the Deccan plateau, and consolidated it by establishing a competent administration. After a glorious rule of 25 years, he abdicated the throne and became a Jain monk.

The Expansion

Bindusara, the capable son of Chandragupta, further expanded his dominions and conquered the remainder of the Deccan Plateau. His empire now stretched from eastern Iran up to modern-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala. However, the strong eastern kingdom of Kalinga (modern Odisha and north Andhra Pradesh) still resisted Mauryan domination.

After Bindusara’s death, his son Ashoka succeeded to the throne. This young Prince had already made a name for himself as ‘Ashoka the Fierce’ during his father’s wars. Well-trained in warfare and strategy, the ambitious, ruthless Emperor decided to finish the conquest of the entire Subcontinent and waged a long, bloody war with Kalinga. In the end, victory was his!

Zenith of the Empire

*Representative Bust of Emperor Ashoka the Great, 3rd Maurya Emperor*

But though Ashoka achieved victory, the war resulted in casualties of more than a hundred thousand, horrifying the young Emperor. Already a keen student of Buddhism, this resulted in a change of heart for him, and he embraced the path of peace.

Laying down his arms, he went so far as to ban recreational hunting and promoting environmental conservation. He supported Buddhism throughout his Empire, and sent missionaries abroad. His envoys spread out as far as China, Sri Lanka, and South East Asia, preaching Buddhism and peace. He developed infrastructure throughout his empire and maintained friendly relations with all his neighbouring rulers. His magnanimous nature and the prosperity of his Empire earned him the name Ashoka the Great, and his policies and legacy remain the foundation even of modern India.

The Decline

Ashoka’s eldest sons Tivala and Kunala predeceased him, while his third son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra are believed to have become Buddhist monks. Hence, his grandson Dasharath took the throne after his death. Unfortunately, he could not keep the huge empire together for long. By the time of his death, the north-western provinces, as well as Gujarat, Maharashtra and Andhra had seceded from the Empire. While Dasharath’s half-brother and successor Samrat Samprati tried to restore Maurya power in the south, his successors proved incapable of competent rule.

The Maurya Empire formally came to an end when an ambitious general Pushyamitra Shunga assassinated Samrat Brihadratha and founded his own dynasty.

Political, Military, and Administrative Aspects

Politically, the Empire was split into 4 provinces- Tosali (east), Ujjain (west), Suvarnagiri (south), Takshashila (north) – with the imperial capital at Pataliputra (Patna). The Samrat or Emperor was the Head of State, and took policy decisions with the advice of an organized Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers). The Kumara or Crown Prince administered the provinces, similarly assisted by Mahamatyas and a council of ministers.

A large, highly disciplined and professional army protected the Empire’s boundaries and maintained peace and order. According to the Greek historian Megasthenes, the Maurya Empire wielded one of the largest militaries in the world during the Iron Age, with 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots and 9,000 war elephants. A vast espionage system conducted intelligence activities for internal and external security.

In line with the extensive bureaucracy designed and detailed by Chanakya in his treatise Arthashastra, a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. Trade and enterprise were public-private affairs: the state could own and engage in business activities just like ordinary citizens could form corporations of their own. The Empire maintained extensive diplomatic and trade ties with the Persians and the Greek city-states and satrapies to the west, as well as with the kingdoms of South-East Asia.

Social, Economic, and Cultural Aspects

The Maurya Empire comprised of Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists, along with a number of other sects, and promoted peaceful relations both internally and externally. The period saw trade relations established with the Middle East, Europe, China as well as South East Asia. Under Mauryan patronage, universities like Takshashila and Nalanda became international hubs for education and spirituality.

The unification of the region saw the introduction of a common currency, improved and fair taxation under a central government, and a number of public works such as water tanks and roads. A number of temples, stupas and other structures were built, the most famous being the Sanchi Buddhist Stupa. The renowned edicts of Ashoka, erected in various parts of the subcontinent, proclaimed his rules and policies for all his citizens to understand.

*Artistic depiction of Guru Chanakya, mastermind behind the Maurya Empire*

Chanakya Vishnugupta, the architect of this mighty empire, wrote the Arthashastra and the Chanakya Neeti treatises. Today, these are considered pioneering works in the fields of economics and political science on par with Machiavelli’s ‘The Prince’.

Legacy

The Maurya Empire under Chandragupta and his descendants established the identity of the Indian Subcontinent as one united entity, known as ‘Hind’ by the Persians and ‘India’ by the Greeks. Due to the political and economic stability, the trade relations established with other nations made India’s wealth and power known to the rest of the world. Even today, when the Subcontinent has been divided into 5-6 different nations, the Mauryas cast a long shadow over its history.

Lion Capital of Ashoka, Vidhana Soudha; Image Source: © Moheen Reeyad / Wikimedia Commons / "Lion Capital of Ashoka, Vidhana Soudha (03)" — *Lion Capital of Ashoka, Vidhana Soudha; Image Source: © Moheen Reeyad / Wikimedia Commons / “Lion Capital of Ashoka, Vidhana Soudha (03)”*

The Republic of India adopted the Lion Capital at Sarnath as the national emblem, symbolizing victory. The Ashoka Chakra, adopted from the Buddhist Dhamma Chakra, sits at the centre of the national flag symbolizing righteousness.

Chandragupta Maurya first built the famous Grand Trunk Road which stretches from Chittagong, Bangladesh to Kabul, Afghanistan and connects the Subcontinent to Central Asia; while Ashoka later expanded on it. Rebuilt and repaired many times from then till now, it remains one of the most important roads in Indian history. The treatises of Chanakya continue to educate modern India on economics and politics, and the numerous stupas, edicts and sculptures forever stand testament to the greatest empire of the Indian Subcontinent.

– Ashutosh Dixit

Posted on June 25, 2020June 6, 2022 by Ashutosh Dixit · 1 Comment

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj: A Founding Father of Modern India

Statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj at Pratapgad

The glorious annals of the history of the Indian Subcontinent span over 5000 years. From the first cities that sprung up in the Indus Valley, to the modern countries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal, the Subcontinent has seen its fair share of states and empires rise and fall. From the Maurya Empire that ruled the entire Subcontinent and beyond in 300 BCE, to the Golden Age of the Gupta Dynasty; the Gurjar-Pratiharas in the North to the Cholas in the South, and from the Hindu Kshatriya Rajputs in Rajasthan and the Buddhist Shaka-Kushans to the Turco-Persian Muslim Sultanates of Delhi, the Subcontinent has ever been a multi-cultural whirlpool.

And yet, some men and women have left an indelible print in the pages of history, as well as in the minds and hearts of the generations to come. One such name, of course, is Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj.

Portrait of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Emperor of the Marathas — *Rare portrait of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj at the Rijksmuseum; Image Credit: Unknown author / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)*

Shivaji Maharaj was a 17^th-century warrior-king who, with his brilliant military and administrative genius and a handful of rugged soldiers, carved out his own kingdom in western Maharashtra of present-day India. Prevailing against the Adil Shahi Sultanate and the mighty forces of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, Shivaji Maharaj went on to become the founder and first Emperor or ‘Chhatrapati’ of the Maratha Empire. This Empire would emerge supreme after decades of warfare against the Mughals and influence the entire Subcontinent till the early 19^th century.

But in the galaxy of distinguished men and women that have graced this ancient land, what makes Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj stand out?

Political Significance

The Maratha Empire was a significant political development in Indian history. With his coronation proclaiming official sovereignty in 1674, Shivaji Maharaj did the unthinkable: he reversed the trends of history. With the tolerance of Emperor Akbar’s reign having long given way to the bigotry of Aurangzeb, the successful Maratha Revolution struck a huge blow to Mughal prestige and emboldened other disillusioned feudatories to rise in rebellion.

As the Empire later expanded northward under Shivaji’s grandson Chhatrapati Shahu I and his capable Prime Ministers or Peshwas, it became the first Empire in 700 years (after the Rashtrakutas) to have conquered from the south of the Narmada river to the north. At the same time, while being tolerant of all faiths, the Maratha Empire was officially a Hindu state, following the ancient Indian principles of governance. Thus, the Maratha Empire became the first pan-India Hindu Empire in 700 years.

Military Contributions

Shivaji Raje Bhonsale, as the son of a local feudal chieftain, started his conquests in 1646 with only a few hundred infantry or foot-soldiers. At the end of his reign in 1680, the Marathas had an Army, comprising of infantry, cavalry and artillery, as well as a Navy, with a standing manpower of over 1,00,000 soldiers, and control of over 360 forts in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.

In later years, the Maratha military under the leadership of Peshwa Bajirao I and his successors went on to conquer the major parts of India from Attock in present-day Pakistan to Orissa in the East, and Peshawar in the north to Thanjavur in the south.

*Highest Extent of the Maratha Empire (1759); Source: Shivaji- His Life and Times by G.B. Mehendale*

What made the Marathas such a powerful military force? In his lifetime, Shivaji Maharaj had perfected the tactics of asymmetrical or guerilla warfare in order to successfully defeat foes with numerically superior armies. Time and again, the later Maratha leaders used the Chhatrapati’s strategies to revolutionize warfare in the Indian Subcontinent!

Not stopping at land-based warfare, the intrepid king also realized the importance of a strong navy and a secure coastline to counter naval attacks and the growing influence of foreign colonists. With the vision of developing his fledgling empire into a naval power when no other Indian ruler was doing so, he built a formidable navy and sea-fortresses like Sindhudurg or Vijaydurg. The Maratha Navy would go on to defeat the Portuguese, the Siddi and the English in major naval battles. For this stupendous foresight, he is rightly hailed as the ‘Father of Modern Indian Navy’.

Administrative Brilliance

– The Pradhan Mandal

Shivaji Maharaj laid the foundation of a decentralized monarchy, by appointing his own Cabinet of Eight Ministers or Ashta Pradhan Mandal. Headed by a Prime Minister or Peshwa, each minister governed one administrative department, much like any modern government; although the ultimate authority was vested in the absolute monarch. The original positions were:

Peshwa or Mukhya Pradhan = Prime Minister

Shuru-navis or Sacheev = Secretary

Mazumdar or Amatya = Finance Minister

Sar-naubat or Senapati = Army Commander-in-Chief

Waqia-navis or Mantri = Interior Minister

Sumant or Dabeer = Foreign Minister

Nyayadhish = Chief Justice

Panditrao = High Priest and in-charge of Education

Later on, a couple of more positions were added, such as:

Pratinidhi = Viceroy/Representative

Sarkhel = Navy Admiral

This revolutionary idea changed governance in India, making administration more efficient and ensuring a just and prosperous government. This decentralization allowed for great resilience and resurgence in tough times.

After the cruel execution of Shivaji’s valiant son and successor Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, and the fall of his capital, the Mughal Emperor believed the Marathas were effectively crushed. However, from the stronghold of Jinjee in Tamil Nadu, Shivaji’s younger son Chhatrapati Rajaram could continue the struggle through his able ministers such as Ramchandra Pant ‘Amatya’ and Shankaraji Pant ‘Sacheev’, and brilliant ‘Senapatis’ such as Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav.

– Abolishment of ‘Watandari’ System

With his characteristic foresight, Chhatrapati Shivaji also abolished the watandari feudal system of the medieval era, based on land ownership by the local noblemen and lords. Instead, he established a system where all his noblemen were appointed and salaried employees of the government, thus strengthening centralized power. While the feudal noblemen were allowed to continue their titles and minor privileges, the revenue collection was now entirely handled by salaried central government employees, prohibiting the exploitation of farmers. No king had ever thought of abolishing the feudal system in that time, and this step has been praised as a precursor of modern administration.

Unfortunately, during the latter half of the Mughal-Maratha War, the Marathas were forced to reinstate the watandari system to retain their noblemen’s loyalty. However, the principle of abolishing this prevalent practice clearly illustrates the administrative brilliance of the ‘Great Maratha’.

Economic Measures

Not stopping at administrative reforms, Shivaji Maharaj also took great efforts to improve the economy of his fledgling kingdom. He improved upon the revenue system set by Dadaji Konddev, to standardize the measurement of land and approximate yield based on the type of soil. He provided incentives to farmers so that they were encouraged to start working on previously unfarmed land. Also, by abolishing the revenue collection by watandars, he increased the tax received by the central government as well as the portion that was left with the peasants, benefitting them both.

Apart from agriculture and industry, he also promoted trade by land and sea. Maratha merchant vessels began plying their goods from the Konkan up to Iran, Turkey, and Arabia. He collected octroi from traders on land as well as the sea, especially from the Europeans. One example of his excellent policies is when he increased the tax on Portuguese-produced salt, so that people began buying salt produced in Maratha territories.

Social and Cultural Policies

Young Shivaji had been raised in a deeply religious Hindu upbringing by his mother Jijabai. The oppression faced by Hindus during his formative years left a deep impression upon him, and he rebuilt many temples that had been destroyed by Islamic or European invaders. He also provided the choice of reconversion to Hindus who had been forcibly converted, and insisted on using Sanskrit terminologies in his administration rather than the prevalent Persian. He ordered the ‘Rajyavyavaharkosha’ to be compiled, in order to replace Persian words in the Marathi language with their Sanskrit-based counterparts. Thus, he inculcated a sense of pride, belonging and unity in a native population that had long suffered against foreign yoke.

*Saptakoteshwar Temple, Goa built by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj after the Portuguese had destroyed the original*

Despite this, he respected all religions and peoples, and treated all his subjects with equal and absolute justice and compassion. Unlike others of the time, his disciplined armies never indulged in wanton destruction or looting, and surrendered enemies were treated with dignity. The respect shown to the women and children captured during wartime is worthy of admiration.

Also, in times where appointing hereditary heirs or political supporters to high positions was common, he appointed people based on their talent or capability rather than arbitrary measures of birth, community or caste, ensuring the right people in right positions. His fair policies and deep concern for his subjects made him a King beloved by his people.

Influence and Inspiration

Chhatrapati Shivaji’s great vision was of Hindavi Swarajya- to throw off the decadent Mughal rule and unite all of the Indian Subcontinent under the banner of ‘Self-Rule’ or ‘Independence’ based on indigenous or ‘dharmic’ principles. This grand vision inspired and encouraged a number of other heroes- such as Durgadas Rathore in Marwar, Raja Chhatrasal in Bundelkhand, and Lachit Borphukan in Assam- to resist the cruel and intolerant policies of Aurangzeb.

This vision was taken forward by Shivaji’s sons and grandsons, their ministers and generals. Eventually, the Marathas conquered most of India including Delhi, where the Mughal Emperor was made a puppet. For over 70 years, the Bhagwa Dhwaj of the Marathas fluttered throughout the nation as its pre-eminent power, and India flourished under its watchful gaze. Chhatrapati Shivaji’s vision lived on for centuries after his death, inspiring everyone from Rani Laxmibai to Lokmanya Tilak, Swami Vivekananda to Rabindranath Tagore, and Veer Savarkar to Netaji Bose in their fight for righteousness and freedom from tyranny- a testament to his greatness.

Modern India and the Chhatrapati

When the Europeans arrived on the shores of the subcontinent and began to study the history of this ancient land, they were understandably perplexed. Unlike the history of Europe, they were unable to classify Indian history into the ‘Classical, Medieval, Modern’ categorization. Several alternatives were proposed to herald the beginning of Modern India- such as the rise of the Mughals (1526) or their downfall after Aurangzeb and the rise of Marathas (beginning 1707).

The Coronation of Shivaji Maharaj as 'Chhatrapati' at Raigad Fort in 1674 — *The Coronation as ‘Chhatrapati’ at Raigad Fort in 1674*

Whichever way we look at it: if we consider the above points, it cannot be denied that the life and work of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj had a significant impact on the Subcontinent. His ideas, foresight, policies and principled character are an example for modern India to follow. The Empire he founded went on to change the status quo of the country and began the process of moving towards the modern age, till it was divided and conquered by the British. For all this transformation, it is imperative to celebrate this venerated figure as one of the founders of modern India.

One idea- Hindavi Swarajya- and look at its result! What is true greatness, but that your vision lives on long after you and continues to inspire people to fight for it? Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was thus, not only an ideal warrior, administrator, and ruler, but truly a visionary: one of those rare men that transform the world with their ideas during their very lifetime. To this inspirational hero, our symbol of freedom and hope, one of the Founding Fathers of Modern India, I pay my humble respects.

Jai Bhavani, Jai Shivaji! Har Har Mahadev!

– Ashutosh Dixit

Sources:

Administrative System of the Marathas- Surendranath Sen
Military System of the Marathas- Surendranath Sen
Shivaji- His Life and Times- G. B. Mehendale