Frequently, when discussing Indian history, people ask me about the Chhatrapatis and the Peshwas and their exact role in Maratha history. It is sad that these things have not been clearly emphasized in school textbooks, but the politics of British and even independent India has succeeded in obscuring them needlessly. Hence, when taking the story of the Marathas forward after the Maratha War of Independence, it is necessary to clarify this oft-questioned point.
The Chhatrapati and the Peshwa- Meaning and Origins
In 1674, when Shivaji Maharaj was formally crowned, the title ‘Chhatrapati’ was chosen for his ascension. The word comes from the Sanskrit ‘Chhatra’ meaning umbrella or parasol, or figuratively, roof; and ‘pati’ meaning ‘Lord’. Thus, Chhatrapati literally translates to ‘Lord of the Parasol’; figuratively, it signifies a sovereign holding the roof of protection over other rulers. In English, it would be equivalent to ‘Emperor’ or ‘Lord Paramount’. Practically, it signified that Shivaji Maharaj was not a mere ‘Raja’ or ‘Maharaja’ serving under some Sultan; but rather, a fully independent sovereign ruler. His sons and descendants continued to inherit the title till after Indian independence.
The term ‘Peshwa’, on the other hand, was of Persian origin. Literally, it means ‘the First’ or ‘the Foremost’; figuratively it translates to ‘Prime Minister’. This title has an interesting history behind it. In 1642, when a young Shivaji visited his father Shahaji Maharaj in Karnataka, Shahaji appointed a group of experienced, loyal ministers to aid and advise his son in governing Pune and surrounding areas. Among these, Shamraj Pant Rozekar was appointed as the ‘Peshwa’. His duty was to oversee the administration of the province and act as the chief among ministers.
Over time, the crucial position of Peshwa came to rest with Moreshwar ‘Moro Pant’ Pingle, an enterprising leader who had joined the Maratha Revolution early on. Moro Pant constructed the Pratapgad fort, and took part in the Battle against Afzal Khan. He led several successful military missions in Nashik and Baglan, with the most famous being the great Battle of Salher-Mulher. Thus in 1674, Moro Pant Pingle became the first ‘Peshwa’ of the Swarajya. Shivaji Maharaj changed the title to Sanskrit as ‘Mukhya Pradhan’. However, the original title remained in use throughout Maratha history.
Peshwa- Role and Functions
In the ‘Kanoon Zabita’ (Book of Civil Law) compiled in 1674, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj defines the role and functions of the Peshwa:
The Mukhya Pradhan should look after all activities involved in governing the kingdom. He should bear the official Stamp of the State and seal the royal letters. When required, he should lead the armies of the kingdom and fight on the battlefield. Once a new province is conquered, it is the Mukhya Pradhan’s duty to ensure its security, and set its administrative affairs in order. He should have the confidence of the noblemen as well as the military, and work in consultation with them as a true leader.
The Peshwa during the Maratha War of Independence
All members of the Pradhan Mandal were appointed based on merit and experience, and the positions were not hereditary. However, in 1680, Moro Pant Pingle passed away of illness and age. Though he had unwillingly supported Queen Soyarabai and the Sacheev Annaji Datto in their power struggle against Prince Sambhaji; he had repented and sought forgiveness after the latter emerged victorious. Recognizing him as a great pillar of the Swarajya since its inception, Sambhaji had forgiven Moro Pant and restored his title and position. In recognition of his services, newly-crowned Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj also appointed his eldest son Nilkanth ‘Nilo Pant’ as his next Peshwa.
Nilo Pant served his King to the best of his abilities; however, he was at the time the least experienced member of the Council. Hence, in the years to come, stalwarts like Ramchandra Pant ‘Amatya’, ‘Shankaraji Pant ‘Sacheev’ and the Senapatis, Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav played more important roles. After Sambhaji’s death, Nilo Pant helped Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj escape to Jinjee fort. Post that, however, his role seems to have been taken over by Ramchandra Pant Amatya in Maharashtra, and Prahlad Pant, appointed in the newly formed role of ‘Pratinidhi’ at Jinjee. Till 1707, the above functionaries led the war against Aurangzeb, first under Rajaram Maharaj and then under his wife Maharani Tarabai. The Peshwa seems to have receded into the background, and conflicting records have been found of his fate.
Thus things progressed till 1707. But everything changed with the rise of Shahu Maharaj; and this is where we now pick up the story.
Shahu Maharaj- Early Years
Shahuji Bhonsale, son of Sambhaji Maharaj, spent 18 years of his life in Mughal captivity along with his mother Yesubai. The captured Marathas lived in fear of Aurangzeb’s displeasure, but the wily Emperor had a long-term plan. He wanted to use Shahu against his uncle Rajaram, and held him and his family as political prisoners. But even in these dark times, Shahu found a protector.
Zeenat un-Nissa, Aurangzeb’s favorite daughter, grew fond of little Shahu. An unmarried, pious lady, she began to think of Shahu as a son, and became his guardian angel. Not only did she help Yesubai ensure the safety of her people, she also facilitated Shahu’s education. Shahu grew fluent in Marathi, Sanskrit, and Farsi, and became well-versed in the history of both the Marathas and the Mughals. Having spent his formative years surrounded by violence, Shahu developed a wise, peaceful disposition that disliked conflict.
Once, in a fit of paranoia, Aurangzeb tried to convert Shahu to Islam, even issuing a royal firman. Once again, it was Zeenat un-Nissa who pleaded with Aurangzeb to change his mind. When he argued that he could not take back an issued firman, two sons of Shivaji’s late Commander Prataprao Gujar agreed to convert in Shahu’s stead. And so, Shahu was able to remain a Hindu.
In time, Aurangzeb himself grew somewhat fond of the quiet, intelligent and philosophical young man. He even arranged his marriage with the daughters of two Maratha sardars working for the Mughals, and presented him three swords as a gift- one that had belonged to Shivaji Maharaj, one that had belonged to Afzal Khan, and one belonging to the Emperor himself.
Death of a Tyrant
In the April of 1707, Aurangzeb Alamgir lay on his deathbed in Aurangabad. At his bedside were his most trusted advisors Nizam ul-Mulk and Zulfiqar Khan, his son Prince Azam, daughter Zeenat un-Nissa, and favorite prisoner, Shahu. The 89-year old tyrant, ruler of almost the entire Indian Subcontinent knew that his sons would never be able to continue the legacy of the House of Timur and Babar.
According to many accounts, Aurangzeb called Shahu to his side. He made Shahu swear that as long as he lived he would not let the House of Timur be destroyed, to which Shahu complied.
Then the Emperor died, and all hell broke loose.
His sons Muazzam, Azam, and Kam Baksh declared war against each other for the Mughal Throne, and Azam began to march northward to seize it. But what of Maharashtra? The Marathas had fought Aurangzeb for 27 years, and now they would take the opportunity to increase their strength. Azam knew he couldn’t allow them to consolidate. And so, he decided to initiate Aurangzeb’s long-term plan. He released Shahu!
Shahu Maharaj vs Maharani Tarabai
Long in the making, this was a masterstroke. The diminished Maratha Kingdom was then nominally ruled by Shahu’s teenaged cousin Shivaji II. However, it was Shahu’s aunt Maharani Tarabai who wielded the real power. The great warrior queen had spent the last seven years reclaiming the Swarajya from the Mughals, and had grown used to ruling. Would she simply hand over the throne?
Shahu left the Mughal camp with great fanfare, as befit a prince returning home. He wrote to Tarabai, declaring that he had been released and was coming to the capital Satara to meet her.
Tarabai called for her council of ministers- Ramchandra Pant Amatya (Finance Minister), Shankaraji Pant Sacheev (State Secretary), Parshuram Pant Pratinidhi (Viceroy), Khando Ballal Chitnis (Royal Secretary), and Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav (Commander-in-Chief). “Who is this young man?” She asked them. “Are we even sure that this is the real Shahu, son of Sambhaji? Or is he some impostor, coming from the Mughals to destroy us?” She refused to accept Shahu as the real heir, and the council sent envoys to find the truth.
By this time, Shahu had been joined by some veteran Maratha generals- Nemaji Shinde, Parsoji Bhonsle, Chimnaji Damodar Moghe, and Ambaji Pant Purandare. His armies increasing, Shahu marched south. Despite his claim to the throne, he knew quite well why the Mughals had released him. So, he desired to avoid war within the Maratha Kingdom and attempt a peaceful resolution. However, at the village of Parad, the local Patil loyal to Tarabai opposed him. In the brief battle that ensued, the Patil died. His grieving wife brought the Patil’s little son to Shahu, and demanded to know who would take care of him. Tender-hearted Shahu adopted him as a son, and named him Fateh Sinh Bhonsale.
The Maratha Civil War
The Council of Ministers ascertained that the young man was indeed the son of Sambhaji Maharaj. It was one of Dhanaji’s trusted aides, Balaji Vishwanath Bhat, who confirmed it. Balaji had met Shahu Maharaj when negotiating with the Mughals as the Sarsubhedar of Pune. Privately, Balaji also urged Dhanaji to join Shahu, as he was the rightful heir to the Maratha Throne. Ramchandra Pant Amatya wrote a congratulatory letter to Shahu and wished him success. Furious, Tarabai imprisoned him.
Her first ploy having failed, Tarabai changed her tack. Now, she declared that even if Shahu was indeed Sambhaji’s son, he had no right to her son’s throne!
In a letter, she wrote to her sardars, “The kingdom that the Thorle Maharaj (Shivaji) founded with great personal effort was lost by Sambhaji kaka along with his life. Then, the late swami (Rajaram) by his own courage created a new kingdom and defended it from the Mughals… Therefore, Shahu has nothing to do with this kingdom.”
Despite this, she knew her argument was weak, and that the loyalty of the noblemen was wavering. Hence, she asked the Council of Ministers to swear the ‘doodh bhaat’ (milk and rice) sacred oath of loyalty. Unwillingly, Shankaraji Pant and Dhanaji Jadhav swore to serve Tarabai loyally. Khando Ballal however, cleverly only specified that he would not help Shahu if he was an impostor.
With a large army, the Pratinidhi, the Senapati and the Chitnis left Satara to engage Shahu’s forces. However, the old Senapati privately asked Khando Ballal Chitnis to verify whether Shahu was indeed the real heir. Khando Ballal met Shahu Maharaj secretly and ascertained his identity. Agreeing with Balaji Vishwanath, he convinced Dhanaji to abandon Tarabai’s cause.
The Battle of Khed
At Khed, the two forces met. However, Dhanaji’s contingent only pretended to fight and stayed aloof. Exposed, Parshuram Pant Pratinidhi fled with his forces to Satara. Dhanaji surrendered to Shahu Maharaj, who then released him from all prior oaths and appointed him his Senapati. And they marched forward.
At Shirwal, Shahu tried to approach Shankaraji Pant Sacheev. But the honorable old minister could not decide where his loyalties lay- to his sworn oath or to the rightful heir. Torn between the two, Shankaraji committed suicide.
Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj
Now, Shahu marched to Satara. The Pratinidhi strengthened the fort and sent Tarabai and Shivaji II to Panhala. Looking at the huge fortress, Dhanaji expressed doubt about conquering it. But Shahu calmly said, “The fort will fall eight days from now.”
And fall it did. Shahu’s forces entered and imprisoned the Pratinidhi. Key to this victory were Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav and his resourceful aide, Balaji Vishwanath Bhat.
On January 12, 1708, 25-year old Shahu ascended to his grandfather’s throne. The quiet, dutiful former prisoner of the Mughal camp had now become Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj!
And just like that, a new sun had arisen over the fortunes of the Maratha Empire.
– Ashutosh Dixit
