Alexander the Great is probably one of the most famous names in history, synonymous with courage and victory. Julius Caesar, the famed Roman general, once expressed sorrow over the fact that he would never be able to outdo Alexander’s achievements. His heir, the first Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar, took time after conquering Egypt to visit Alexander’s tomb in Alexandria. Even Napoleon considered him to be the greatest conqueror of all times. But this admiration is not just limited to the great conquerors; Alexander has created an enduring fascination in the minds of people worldwide.
And yet, there are those today who question the appellation of ‘the Great’ attached to him. Was he truly worthy enough of the title? Or is his legend just a story blown out of proportion? In this article, we take a look at the life and times of Alexander III of Macedon, and what makes him ‘the Great’.
The Beginning
Born in Pella, capital of the Kingdom of Macedon, Alexander III was the eldest son and heir of the great King Philippos II with his wife Olympias.
Before Phillippos’ time, Athens, Thebes and Sparta had dominated the small kingdom of Macedon. Philippos defeated the Athenian invaders and diplomatically dealt with the powerful Thebans. He then introduced the ‘Macedonian Phalanx’ infantry formation in his army, where the units created tight formations of 8X16 men wielding long spears and pikes. This unbreakable formation became the root of Macedonian military success and Philippos succeeded in defeating several Greek city-states, forcing Athens to sue for peace. He was a man of great ambition, but even he had realized by this time that his son was something different.
Alexander’s mother believed that he was special, often telling him that he had been born from Zeus, the King of the Greek Gods. Believing his mother’s tales he had grown up to be a strong, handsome and charismatic youth. When he was ten, a trader had brought a wild black horse to his father, and claimed it was untamable. Where all the other soldiers and nobles had failed, Alexander had succeeded in calming it. Seeing this, Philippos remarked that Macedon was too small for his son’s ambitions, and began training him in military strategy, martial skill and leadership at a young age.
But he had another teacher. From the age of 14 to 16, he was taught science, math, philosophy, art, literature and statesmanship by none other than Aristotle, one of the greatest philosopher-scientists of the ancient world. Aristotle’s teachings had a great impact on the ever-curious Alexander, imparting to him an admiration of different cultures and a thirst to explore the world.
Early Successes
Upon graduation, he began governing Macedon when his father was away. He successfully defeated two rebellions, defended against an invasion and even fought battles alongside his father, earning the praise of his people. Philippos had by then established the League of Corinth or Hellenic League, a confederacy of all Greek city-states (except Sparta) with himself as the Supreme Leader (Hegemon). With the resources of almost all of ancient Greece, he planned on challenging the might of the Persian Empire that had repeatedly invaded Greece in the past. However, before he could begin, one of his guards assassinated him over petty strife. And so at the age of 20, Alexander suddenly found himself King of Macedon and Hegemon of Greece.
The news of his powerful father’s death encouraged a few of the stronger city-states to revolt. Alexander promptly responded by taking 3000 of his toughest cavalry and riding across Greece. He defeated the Thessalian army by riding over a mountain and attacking them from behind. Soon, the city-states started surrendering and making peace, and duly recognized him as the next Hegemon of the Hellenic League. Taking advantage of his riding south, the northern Thracians and Illyrians revolted. He rode north to defeat them, only to find Thebes, which had just made peace with him, revolting again. Furious, he attacked Thebes and razed the entire city to the ground. The destruction of Thebes was thus a lesson and a reminder to the rest of Greece: Alexander was not to be challenged.
Thus, establishing supreme authority in all of Greece, he turned his attention to Persia.
Conquest of Asia Minor
The Persian Empire at the time stretched from Turkey right up to modern day Afghanistan. In 334 BCE, Alexander led his armies across the Hellespont Strait, the traditional boundary between Europe and Asia. Throwing a spear into the ground, he declared that Asia was a gift to him from the Gods.
Battle of Granicus
At Granicus in modern-day Turkey, near the ruins of Troy, Alexander engaged with a Persian force of 20,000 cavalry and 20,000 infantry. With his forces roughly equal, his superior phalanx formation won the day, and the local Persian satrap (tributary) surrendered. He then rode along the coast, besieging and taking the ports of Miletus, Halicarnassus, Lycia and Pamphylia. Thus by capturing the coast, he ensured that no Persian reinforcements could arrive from the sea!
Battle of Issus
Alarmed by Alexander’s rapid progress, the Persian Emperor, Darius III himself led an army to stop him. Alexander at this time had around 40,000 men, while Darius III more than 80,000 which he positioned on a great plain where he could mass them all effectively.
Alexander refused to engage this superior force, which Darius took as a sign of cowardice. Incited by his courtiers, he left his position and charged at Alexander, who retreated. He successfully struck the rear of Alexander’s force and seemed to be winning when, suddenly, they reached a narrow pass. Here, the Greeks turned to give battle. The huge armies of Persia were useless in the narrow pass, which was just as Alexander had planned. The experienced Macedonians destroyed Darius’s left wing. The centre held for a while, and the fighting grew desperate. At this stage, Alexander’s nerves of steel saved the day, as he personally led a furious charge at Darius and his bodyguards. Frightened, Darius III fled along with his army, leaving behind his mother, wife and children.
Here, Alexander showed his diplomatic charm, honoring them and treating them as royalty. Darius offered him a ransom and one of his daughters in marriage, along with the territories he had already captured. Alexander retorted that in the future, Darius should address him as a superior and not as an equal. He took Syria, as well as the Levant which included modern-day Jordan, Israel, Palestine and parts of Turkey.
Siege of Tyre
In 332 BCE, Alexander sent envoys to Tyre, an ancient Phoenician island stronghold. The islanders declared that no Greeks or Persians could enter their home. When he sent more messengers, they were beheaded and thrown from the walls. Enraged, Alexander decided to teach the islanders a lesson. He commanded his engineers to build a great stone causeway of more than 1 km to connect the island to the mainland. The bridge was built, over which he led his forces and besieged the city.
For seven months, Alexander’s forces tried to storm the island but failed. Then he decided to utilize his new navy, which had come under his control from the Persians. With 223 ships, he successfully blocked both ports on the island, and had several ships refitted with battering rams anchored near the walls. The Tyrians sent out ships and divers to cut the anchor cables, so he responded by replacing the cables with iron chains. Eventually, his rams managed to breach the city walls.
He pardoned the citizens that took shelter in the local temple, including the King of Tyre. However, more than 8,000 Tyrian men were killed in the attack, while some 30,000 people were sold into slavery. The causeway that Alexander built exists to this day, connecting Tyre to the continent.
Conquest of Egypt
From there, Alexander marched towards the ancient civilization of Egypt. Many of the smaller towns on the way quickly surrendered, but Gaza resisted. Alexander had to launch 3 attacks and suffer a shoulder wound before it eventually fell. As at Tyre, he killed many soldiers and sold many citizens into slavery.
In late 332 BCE, Alexander reached Egypt. The Egyptians, long under foreign rule, considered him a liberator and welcomed him. At the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan Desert, he was pronounced the son of Ammon-Ra, the King of the Egyptian Gods, and named Pharaoh of Egypt. Thereafter, Alexander often referred to himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon, a manifestation of the King of Gods of both Greek and Egyptian religions. While in Egypt, he began the construction of the city of Alexandria, which would become a major cultural, educational and trade center for the world for centuries to come.
Conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia
Returning from the African continent, he invaded the ancient lands of Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), which contained the major remaining part of the Persian Empire. Fearing further battles, the Emperor Darius tried to negotiate terms with him, going so far as to make him co-ruler of the Persian Empire. However, the young King gave a chilling reply: there could be only one Emperor. Darius mustered his forces of almost a 100,000 men and marched upon Alexander’s 47,000.
Battle of Gaugamela
This time, Darius ensured that he had a flat plain area of land to use his full force. Alexander charged the centre of the Persian forces with his best-trained phalanx infantry. Simultaneously, he himself led a furious cavalry charge with his most trusted Generals at the right flank. As he’d hoped, Darius’ forces started pursuing him, leaving a gap wide open in between the right and the centre. This move required insanely perfect timing, and has been repeated only a few times since then.
As the fighting grew ever more intense, Alexander gathered a strong force of infantry and cavalry around him, and smashed through the exposed gap in the Persian centre, killing the royal guard. Darius III fled the battle, and Alexander turned back to help his Generals secure a victory.
Aftermath
Darius rode to the eastern parts of the Persian Empire, depending on his vassals to protect him; but his Bactrian satrap Bessus treacherously killed him and fled. Alexander was sorrowful, as he had considered Darius a worthy foe and a good man. He entered the ancient Persian capital of Persepolis and buried Darius next to his ancestors.
Thus, in 330 BCE, Alexander III officially became King of Macedon, Hegemon of Greece, Pharaoh of Egypt and Shahenshah of Persia. His Empire now stretched over 3 continents.
He was only 26 years old.
– Ashutosh Dixit
खूपच छान !अलेक्झाण्डरच्या पराक्रमाचा यथार्थ व रोमांचकारी इतिहास लेखकानें साक्षात उभा केला आहे
“He was only 26 years old”
Author sure does know how to give goosebumps to the reader.
Beautifully written!!
Very well written. Awaiting next part.
Great insight! Portrays the history and the legend in a factual yet exciting manner.
Nice blog…liked the detailing…even the images are good…