The glorious annals of the history of the Indian Subcontinent span over 5000 years. From the first cities that sprung up in the Indus Valley, to the modern countries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal, the Subcontinent has seen its fair share of states and empires rise and fall. From the Maurya Empire that ruled the entire Subcontinent and beyond in 300 BCE, to the Golden Age of the Gupta Dynasty; the Gurjar-Pratiharas in the North to the Cholas in the South, and from the Hindu Kshatriya Rajputs in Rajasthan and the Buddhist Shaka-Kushans to the Turco-Persian Muslim Sultanates of Delhi, the Subcontinent has ever been a multi-cultural whirlpool.

And yet, some men and women have left an indelible print in the pages of history, as well as in the minds and hearts of the generations to come. One such name, of course, is Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj.

Shivaji Maharaj was a 17^th-century warrior-king who, with his brilliant military and administrative genius and a handful of rugged soldiers, carved out his own kingdom in western Maharashtra of present-day India. Prevailing against the Adil Shahi Sultanate and the mighty forces of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, Shivaji Maharaj went on to become the founder and first Emperor or ‘Chhatrapati’ of the Maratha Empire. This Empire would emerge supreme after decades of warfare against the Mughals and influence the entire Subcontinent till the early 19^th century.

But in the galaxy of distinguished men and women that have graced this ancient land, what makes Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj stand out?

Political Significance

The Maratha Empire was a significant political development in Indian history. With his coronation proclaiming official sovereignty in 1674, Shivaji Maharaj did the unthinkable: he reversed the trends of history. With the tolerance of Emperor Akbar’s reign having long given way to the bigotry of Aurangzeb, the successful Maratha Revolution struck a huge blow to Mughal prestige and emboldened other disillusioned feudatories to rise in rebellion.

As the Empire later expanded northward under Shivaji’s grandson Chhatrapati Shahu I and his capable Prime Ministers or Peshwas, it became the first Empire in 700 years (after the Rashtrakutas) to have conquered from the south of the Narmada river to the north. At the same time, while being tolerant of all faiths, the Maratha Empire was officially a Hindu state, following the ancient Indian principles of governance. Thus, the Maratha Empire became the first pan-India Hindu Empire in 700 years.

Military Contributions

Shivaji Raje Bhonsale, as the son of a local feudal chieftain, started his conquests in 1646 with only a few hundred infantry or foot-soldiers. At the end of his reign in 1680, the Marathas had an Army, comprising of infantry, cavalry and artillery, as well as a Navy, with a standing manpower of over 1,00,000 soldiers, and control of over 360 forts in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.

In later years, the Maratha military under the leadership of Peshwa Bajirao I and his successors went on to conquer the major parts of India from Attock in present-day Pakistan to Orissa in the East, and Peshawar in the north to Thanjavur in the south.

What made the Marathas such a powerful military force? In his lifetime, Shivaji Maharaj had perfected the tactics of asymmetrical or guerilla warfare in order to successfully defeat foes with numerically superior armies. Time and again, the later Maratha leaders used the Chhatrapati’s strategies to revolutionize warfare in the Indian Subcontinent!

Not stopping at land-based warfare, the intrepid king also realized the importance of a strong navy and a secure coastline to counter naval attacks and the growing influence of foreign colonists. With the vision of developing his fledgling empire into a naval power when no other Indian ruler was doing so, he built a formidable navy and sea-fortresses like Sindhudurg or Vijaydurg. The Maratha Navy would go on to defeat the Portuguese, the Siddi and the English in major naval battles. For this stupendous foresight, he is rightly hailed as the ‘Father of Modern Indian Navy’.

Administrative Brilliance

– The Pradhan Mandal

Shivaji Maharaj laid the foundation of a decentralized monarchy, by appointing his own Cabinet of Eight Ministers or Ashta Pradhan Mandal. Headed by a Prime Minister or Peshwa, each minister governed one administrative department, much like any modern government; although the ultimate authority was vested in the absolute monarch. The original positions were:

Peshwa or Mukhya Pradhan = Prime Minister

Shuru-navis or Sacheev = Secretary

Mazumdar or Amatya = Finance Minister

Sar-naubat or Senapati = Army Commander-in-Chief

Waqia-navis or Mantri = Interior Minister

Sumant or Dabeer = Foreign Minister

Nyayadhish = Chief Justice

Panditrao = High Priest and in-charge of Education

Later on, a couple of more positions were added, such as:

Pratinidhi = Viceroy/Representative

Sarkhel = Navy Admiral

This revolutionary idea changed governance in India, making administration more efficient and ensuring a just and prosperous government. This decentralization allowed for great resilience and resurgence in tough times.

After the cruel execution of Shivaji’s valiant son and successor Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, and the fall of his capital, the Mughal Emperor believed the Marathas were effectively crushed. However, from the stronghold of Jinjee in Tamil Nadu, Shivaji’s younger son Chhatrapati Rajaram could continue the struggle through his able ministers such as Ramchandra Pant ‘Amatya’ and Shankaraji Pant ‘Sacheev’, and brilliant ‘Senapatis’ such as Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav.

– Abolishment of ‘Watandari’ System

With his characteristic foresight, Chhatrapati Shivaji also abolished the watandari feudal system of the medieval era, based on land ownership by the local noblemen and lords. Instead, he established a system where all his noblemen were appointed and salaried employees of the government, thus strengthening centralized power. While the feudal noblemen were allowed to continue their titles and minor privileges, the revenue collection was now entirely handled by salaried central government employees, prohibiting the exploitation of farmers. No king had ever thought of abolishing the feudal system in that time, and this step has been praised as a precursor of modern administration.

Unfortunately, during the latter half of the Mughal-Maratha War, the Marathas were forced to reinstate the watandari system to retain their noblemen’s loyalty. However, the principle of abolishing this prevalent practice clearly illustrates the administrative brilliance of the ‘Great Maratha’.

Economic Measures

Not stopping at administrative reforms, Shivaji Maharaj also took great efforts to improve the economy of his fledgling kingdom. He improved upon the revenue system set by Dadaji Konddev, to standardize the measurement of land and approximate yield based on the type of soil. He provided incentives to farmers so that they were encouraged to start working on previously unfarmed land. Also, by abolishing the revenue collection by watandars, he increased the tax received by the central government as well as the portion that was left with the peasants, benefitting them both.

Apart from agriculture and industry, he also promoted trade by land and sea. Maratha merchant vessels began plying their goods from the Konkan up to Iran, Turkey, and Arabia. He collected octroi from traders on land as well as the sea, especially from the Europeans. One example of his excellent policies is when he increased the tax on Portuguese-produced salt, so that people began buying salt produced in Maratha territories.

Social and Cultural Policies

Young Shivaji had been raised in a deeply religious Hindu upbringing by his mother Jijabai. The oppression faced by Hindus during his formative years left a deep impression upon him, and he rebuilt many temples that had been destroyed by Islamic or European invaders. He also provided the choice of reconversion to Hindus who had been forcibly converted, and insisted on using Sanskrit terminologies in his administration rather than the prevalent Persian. He ordered the ‘Rajyavyavaharkosha’ to be compiled, in order to replace Persian words in the Marathi language with their Sanskrit-based counterparts. Thus, he inculcated a sense of pride, belonging and unity in a native population that had long suffered against foreign yoke.

Despite this, he respected all religions and peoples, and treated all his subjects with equal and absolute justice and compassion. Unlike others of the time, his disciplined armies never indulged in wanton destruction or looting, and surrendered enemies were treated with dignity. The respect shown to the women and children captured during wartime is worthy of admiration.

Also, in times where appointing hereditary heirs or political supporters to high positions was common, he appointed people based on their talent or capability rather than arbitrary measures of birth, community or caste, ensuring the right people in right positions. His fair policies and deep concern for his subjects made him a King beloved by his people.

Influence and Inspiration

Chhatrapati Shivaji’s great vision was of Hindavi Swarajya- to throw off the decadent Mughal rule and unite all of the Indian Subcontinent under the banner of ‘Self-Rule’ or ‘Independence’ based on indigenous or ‘dharmic’ principles. This grand vision inspired and encouraged a number of other heroes- such as Durgadas Rathore in Marwar, Raja Chhatrasal in Bundelkhand, and Lachit Borphukan in Assam- to resist the cruel and intolerant policies of Aurangzeb.

This vision was taken forward by Shivaji’s sons and grandsons, their ministers and generals. Eventually, the Marathas conquered most of India including Delhi, where the Mughal Emperor was made a puppet. For over 70 years, the Bhagwa Dhwaj of the Marathas fluttered throughout the nation as its pre-eminent power, and India flourished under its watchful gaze. Chhatrapati Shivaji’s vision lived on for centuries after his death, inspiring everyone from Rani Laxmibai to Lokmanya Tilak, Swami Vivekananda to Rabindranath Tagore, and Veer Savarkar to Netaji Bose in their fight for righteousness and freedom from tyranny- a testament to his greatness.

Modern India and the Chhatrapati

When the Europeans arrived on the shores of the subcontinent and began to study the history of this ancient land, they were understandably perplexed. Unlike the history of Europe, they were unable to classify Indian history into the ‘Classical, Medieval, Modern’ categorization. Several alternatives were proposed to herald the beginning of Modern India- such as the rise of the Mughals (1526) or their downfall after Aurangzeb and the rise of Marathas (beginning 1707).

Whichever way we look at it: if we consider the above points, it cannot be denied that the life and work of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj had a significant impact on the Subcontinent. His ideas, foresight, policies and principled character are an example for modern India to follow. The Empire he founded went on to change the status quo of the country and began the process of moving towards the modern age, till it was divided and conquered by the British. For all this transformation, it is imperative to celebrate this venerated figure as one of the founders of modern India.

One idea- Hindavi Swarajya- and look at its result! What is true greatness, but that your vision lives on long after you and continues to inspire people to fight for it? Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was thus, not only an ideal warrior, administrator, and ruler, but truly a visionary: one of those rare men that transform the world with their ideas during their very lifetime. To this inspirational hero, our symbol of freedom and hope, one of the Founding Fathers of Modern India, I pay my humble respects.

Jai Bhavani, Jai Shivaji! Har Har Mahadev!

– Ashutosh Dixit

Sources:

• Administrative System of the Marathas- Surendranath Sen
• Military System of the Marathas- Surendranath Sen
• Shivaji- His Life and Times- G. B. Mehendale